AGRiC.pEPT. 


/  9P  THE  \ 

i       COLLEGE  OF        / 


AGRICULTURE 


AGRICULTURE 


A  Text  for  the  School  and  the  Farm 

X\BRARy^ 

OF  THE 
COLLEGE  OF 

^CULTU^>^  ^y 

O.  H.  BENSON 

AGRICULTURIST,  UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 
and 

GEORGE  HERBERT  BETTS 

AUTHOR  OF  THE  MIND  AND  ITS  EDUCATION 
BETTER  RURAL  SCHOOLS.  ETC. 


WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS,  CHARTS  AND 
DIAGRAMS 


General  Edition 


INDIANAPOLIS 

THE  BOBBS-MERRILL  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 


Copyright  1916 
The  Bobbs-Merrill  Company 


-7 


ot> 


MP"- 


*I  know  of  no  pursuit  in  which  more  real  and 
important  service  can  be  rendered  to  any 
country  than  improving  its  agriculture." 

Gt^orge  Washington 


325464 


Authors'  Acknowledgments 

Acknowledgment  Is  gratefully  made  to  the  Minister  of 
Agriculture,  Canada,  for  the  illustration  on  page  247;  the 
United  3tates  Department  of  Agriculture  for  the  illustra- 
tions on  pages  7,  8,  74,  77,  84,  87,  92,  96,  102,  127,  164,  169, 
173,  191,  194,  196,  251,  254,  352,  357,  360,  363,  367,  378, 
379,  388,  391,  398,  399,  404,  406,  412,  432,  434,  436,  437, 
445,  450,  476;  the  Poultry  Department  of  the  Massachu- 
setts College  of  Agriculture,  pages  440,  445,  447;  the 
Kansas  State  College  of  Agriculture,  page  3 ;  the  Alabama 
Polytechnic  Institute,  page  115;  the  Washington  State  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture,  page  421 ;  the  Iowa  State  College  of 
Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts,  pages  10,  15,  167,  184,  322; 
the  College  of  Agriculture  of  the  Illinois  State  University, 
pages  310,  317,  401,  403;  the  College  of  Agriculture  of  the 
State  University  of  Minnesota,  pages  430,  453 ;  the  College 
of  Agriculture  of  the  University  of  Ohio,  page  173 ;  the 
Yakima  Commercial  Club  of  the  State  of  Washington, 
pages  99,  347,  419;  the  Crop  Improvements  Committee, 
Board  of  Trade  Building,  Chicago,  page  10;  Wallace's 
Farmer,  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  page  472;  the  Agricultural 
Department  of  the  International  Harvester  Company  of 
Chicago,  pages  77,  99,  179,  181,  186,  188,  201 ;  the  James 
Manufacturing  Company,  Fort  Atkinson,  Wisconsin,  pages 
317,  320,  490;  the  DeLaval  Separator  Company  of  New 
York  City,  page  4-63 ;  the  Lehigh  Portland  Cement  Com- 
pany of  Chicago,  page  507;  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway, 
page  424;  and  the  David  McKay  Publishers,  Washington 
Square,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  pages  492,  493. 


PREFACE 

The  present  volume  attempts  what  has*  not  yet  been  ac- 
complished in  elementary  texts  on  agriculture — to  give  not 
only  class-room  lessons  and  instruction  but  definite  sugges- 
tions and  outlines  in  both  methods  and  agencies  of  extension 
education  by  combining  practical  information  with  concrete 
home  and  school  projects  to  he  carried  out  by  the  pupils. 
Agriculture,  of  all  subjects,  can  not  be  taught  wholly  from 
within  a  text-book.  Nor,  on  the  other  hand,  can  it  be  well 
taught  by  the  teacher  who  is  not  a  specialist  without  a  good 
text-book  by  means  of  which  to  unify  the  instruction  and 
lead  to  an  intelligent  interest  in  the  farm  and  its  problems. 
Unless  the  pupils  busy  themselves  with  actual  agricultural 
activities,  the  study  becomes  mere  theory  and  of  doubtful 
value.  This  text  is  a  guide  to  concrete  work  and  interests  of 
farm,  garden  and  the  home. 

Yet  the  text  is  more  than  a  laboratory  guide.  It  gives  a 
large  amount  of  practical,  scientific  information  wholly 
without  technical  terms.  Further,  this  information  is  al- 
ways so  immediately  related  to  definite  farm  projects  as  to 
have  meaning  and  application.  Scientific  facts  and  their  use 
go  hand  in  hand.  Theory  and  practise  are  never  divorced. 
The  old  maxim,  "Learn  to  do  by  doing,"  is  constantly  fol- 
lowed, and  the  doing  made  natural  and  worth  while  to  the 
child  by  being  connected  with  his  home  interests. 

Hardly  a  day's  assignment  occurs  in  the  book,  therefore, 
that  does  not  present  some  real  project  for  the  pupils  to 
carry  out  in  connection  with  the  farm  or  home  life.  Nor 
are  the  problems  assigned  the  child  without  the  information 
or  guidance  necessary  to  their  intelligent  solution.  The  re- 
quired facts,  principles  and  descriptions  are  always  at  hand, 
and  the  problem  or  project  made  the  means  of  teaching  some 
valuable  lesson  in  concrete  form.  No  other  subject  now 
taught  in  our  schools  needs  more  definite  direction  and  as- 
signments than  does  agriculture. 

The  authors  believe  that  the  elementary  features  of  agi'i- 


PREFACE 

culture  can  be  successfully  taught  without  technicalities.  It 
has  been  their  aim  to  present  a  treatment  so  clear  that  chil- 
dren from  fourteen  to  sixteen  years  of  age  could  read  and 
profit  if  necessary  without  a  teacher.  They  have  also  tried 
to  make  the  subject-matter  so  vital  and  helpful  that  all  who 
are  interested  in  agriculture,  even  practical  farmers,  will 
care  to  read  it,  and  desire  to  carry  out  its  lessons  in  practise. 

Teachers  will  recognize  and  welcome  the  attempt  to  use 
the  study  of  agriculture  in  bringing  about  a  closer  relation 
between  the  school  and  the  home.  Not  only  teachers,  but 
county  superintendents  and  agricultural  agents  and  leaders 
will  appreciate  the  many  helpful  suggestions  concerning 
Demonstration  Days,  Play  Contests  and  Agricultural  Club 
Projects ;  for  these  are  coming  to  occupy  an  important  place 
in  agricultural  education.  The  great  amount  of  care  given 
to  make  the  lessons  teachable  through  the  outlining  of  many 
definite  and  practical  laboratory,  field  and  home  projects  will 
appeal  to  all  who  use  the  text,  and  save  much  time  for  the 
busy  teacher. 

The  authors  gratefully  render  their  acknowledgments  for 
much  cordial  help  received  from  the  staffs  of  various  state 
colleges  of  agriculture  and  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture ;  from  Mr.  Harry  Lamon,  Senior  Poultry  Hus- 
bandman, United  States  Department  of  Agriculture;  from 
Mr.  C.  B.  Smith,  Chief  of  the  Office  of  Extension  Work, 
North  and  West,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
and  Mr.  J.  A.  Evans,  Assistant  Chief,  Office  of  Extension 
Work,  South,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture; 
from  Mr.  J.  C.  Hogenson,  of  Utah ;  Mr.  T.  J.  Newbill,  of 
Pullman,  Washington ;  Mr.  F.  L.  Griffin,  of  Corvallis,  Ore- 
gon; Mr.  B.  H.  Cocheron,  of  California,  and  Mr.  W.  E. 
Vaplon,  of  Colorado.  Especially  valuable  have  been  the 
suggestions  and  material  received  from  the  colleges  of  agri- 
culture of  Iowa,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Ohio,  New 
York,  Massachusetts,  Alabama,  Minnesota,  Kansas,  Utah 
and  Nebraska. 


CONTENTS 

PART  I.    FARM  CROPS 

I    Corn  Culture 1 

Corn  the  king  of  crops — Corn  culture  in  the 
South  and  West — Study  of  the  corn  plant — Se- 
curing good  seed — Testing  seed  corn — Seed  bed 
and  cultivation — Topics  for  investigation — Corn 
enemies — Corn  play  contests — Corn  demonstra- 
tion work — Corn  clubs. 

II    Agriculture  in  the  South 27 

Agriculture  the  chief  of  southern  industries — 
Diversified  farming  in  the  South — Crops  suitable 
for  southern  farming — Animals  adapted  to  south- 
ern conditions — Soil  management — Topics  for  in- 
vestigation— Agricultural  demonstrations — South- 
ern agricultural  club  projects. 

III  Agriculture  in  Western  States 41 

Diversity  of  agricultural  conditions  in  the  West 
— Three  types  of  western  farming — Dry-farming 
— Dry-farm  areas — Dry-farming  practise — Man- 
agement of  the  dry-farm — Topics  for  investiga- 
tion— Demonstrations  in  dry-farming — Play  con- 
tests— Club  projects. 

IV  Farming  Under  Irrigation 56 

The  reclamation  of  arid  and  semi-arid  land — 
Causes  of  aridity — Reclamation  projects — Sys- 
tems of  irrigation — Crop  management  under  irri- 
gation— Dangers  from  over-irrigation — Topics 
for  investigation — Irrigation  demonstrations — 
Play  contests — Club  projects. 

V    Wheat 1Z 

Bread  the  staff  of  life — Importance  of  wheat — 
The  wheat  states — Types  of  wheat — Topics  for 
investigation — Growing  the  crop — Diseases  and 
insect  enemies — Treatment  of  fungous  enemies — 
Treatment  of  insect  enemies — Problems  and  ex- 
periments. 


CONTENTS— Continued 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

VI    Oats 90 

Importance  of  oats  as  a  crop — The  oat  region — 
Types  of  oats — Problems  and  experiments — Rais- 
ing the  crop — Harvesting  and  thrashing — Insect 
enemies  and  diseases — Topics  for  investigation—* 
Wlieat  and  oat  demonstrations — Play  contests 
— Club  projects. 

VII    Cotton 107 

The  cotton  plant — Region   for  growing  cotton — 
Raising    the    cotton    crop — Picking    cotton — Ene-    ^ 
mies  of  the  cotton  crop — Topics  for  investigation 
— Cotton   demonstrations — Play  contests — Cotton 
club  projects. 

VIII    The  Potato 120 

Origin — Plant  and  tuber — Potatoes  as  a  farm 
crop — The  potato  region — Growing  the  crop — 
Harvesting  and  storing  potatoes — Seed  selection 
— The  "tuber-unit"  method — Potato  enemies — 
Problems  and  experiments — Potato  demonstra- 
tions— Play  contests — Potato  clubs. 

IX    Tobacco  Culture 135 

The  tobacco  region — Uses  and  classes  of  tobacco 
Raising  the  crop — Insect  enemies — Topics  for  in- 
vestigation— Demonstrations. 

X    Sugar  Farming        145 

The  importance  of  sugar  as  food — Sugar-raising 
regions — Varieties  of  sugar — Producing  cane 
sugar — Harvesting  and  manufacturing — Growing 
sugar  beets — Sugar  beets  in  the  dry  region — Pro- 
ducing saccharine  sorghum — Maple  sugar — Topics 
for  investigation — Sugar  demonstrations — Play 
contests — Sugar  club  projects. 

XI    Forage  Crops 157 

The  place  of  forage  crops — Important  grasses  and 
legumes — Region   arid   extent  of   forage  crops — 


CHAPTER 


CONTENTS— Continued 

PAGE 

Uses  to  which  the  forage  plants  are  put — Prob- 
lems and  experiments — Demonstrations — Club 
projects. 

XII    The  Clovers 163 

Wide  use  of  the  clovers — Red  clover — Study  of 
the  plant — Value  of  red  clover  on  the  farm — 
Raising  red  clover — Seed  bed  and  seeding — Good 
seed — Harvesting — Enemies  and  their  control — 
Other  kinds  of  clover — Problems  for  investiga- 
tion. 

Xill    Alfalfa 177 

Study  of  plant — Distribution  of  alfalfa — Alfalfa 
as  a  forage  crop — As  a  renewer  of  the  soil — 
Successful  raising  of  alfalfa — Harvesting — Ene- 
mies— Topics  for  investigation. 

XIV    Other  Legumes 190 

The  cow-pea — Cow-peas  as  forage — As  a  soil  re- 
newer  —  The  vetches  —  Varieties  —  Uses  —  Soy- 
beans— Uses  and  cultivation — Feeding  value — 
The  peanut. 

XV    Meadows  and  Pastures 198 

Importance  of  meadows  and  pastures — Require- 
ments of  a  meadow — Meadow  grasses  and  le- 
gumes— Mixtures  for  meadows — Care  of  mead- 
ows— Problems  for  investigation — Pastures — Re- 
quirements— Seed  mixtures — Care. 

PART  11.    HORTICULTURE 

XVI    Thf  Vegetable  Garden 207 

Importance  of  the  garden — The  plan  of  a  garden 
— Planting  time  and  maturity — Culture  of  gar- 
den crops— Vegetables  that  require  special  treat- 
ment— Insect  enemies  and  their  cure — Topics  for 
investigation — Garden  demonstrations — Play  con- 
tests— Garden  club  projects. 


CO'NTEXTS— Continued 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XVII     Culture  of  Fruits  and  Nuts 224 

Recent  advance  in  fruit  and  nut  farming — The 
home  fruit  garden — Varieties  and  care — Enemies 
— Problems  for  investigation — Commercial  citrus 
orchards — Varieties  of  citrus  fruits — The  man- 
agement of  citrus  orchards — Picking,  packing  and 
marketing — Other  important  fruits  of  the  South 
and  West — Nut  farming  in  the  South  and  West 
— Topics  for  investigation — Fruit  and  nut  dem- 
onstrations— Club  proj  ects. 

XVIII    The  Tomato 242 

Importance  of  the  tomato — Varieties — Raising 
the  crop — Pruning  and  staking — Harvesting  and 
marketing — Problems  and  experiments — Demon- 
strations— Play  contests — Clubs. 

XIX    Garden  and  Orchard  Sprays 249 

Indispensable  in  successful  gardening — Bordeaux 
mixture — Use — Lime-sulphur — ^^How  made  and 
used — Arsenate  of  lead — Mixing  and  applying — 
Paris  green — Kerosene  emulsion — How  made  and 
used — Resin-lime  mixture. 

XX  Home  Canning  of  Fruits,  Vegetables  and  Soups  258 
The  value  of  home  canned  products — Methods  of 
canning — Canning  devices  and  equipment — Mak- 
ing of  brines  and  sirups — Useful  tables — Classi- 
fication of  fruits  for  canning — Recipes  for 
canning  fruits — Classification- of  vegetables  for 
canning — Recipes — Special  recipes — Home  can- 
ning of  soups — Canning  of  windfall  apples,  steril- 
izing cider,  making  sirup  out  of  windfall  apples 
— Tinning,  capping  and  soldering — Home  repair 
work — Rapid  cooling  of  canned  products. 

PART  III.     THE  SOIL 

XXI    Nature  of  Soil 302 

Origin  of  soil — Nature  of  soil — Organic  matter — 


CHAPTER 


XXII 


XXIII 


PAGE 


314 


CONTENTS— Continued 

Texture  and  its  effects — Structure  of  soils — 
Structure  and  tilth — Erosion — Problems  and  ex- 
periments. 

Soil  Fertility  and  Plant  Growth 

Plant  food  and  soil  fertility — Loss  of  fertility — 
Maintaining  fertility — Barnyard  manure  as  a 
fertilizer — Preventing  loss  from  manure — Appli- 
cation to  soil — Green  manuring — Commercial  fer- 
tilizers— Use  of  lime  on  soils — Crop  rotation  and 
fertility. 

Soil  Moisture 331 

Forms  of  soil  water — Capacity  of  soils  for  capil- 
lary water — Tillage  and  soil  water — Soil  drainage 
— Surface  and  tile  drains — Topics  for  investiga- 
tion— Soil  demonstrations — Soil  play  contests — 
Club  work. 


PART  IV.     FARM  ANIMALS 

XXIV    Farm  Animals  and  Agriculture 344 

Work  animals — Animals  that  supply  food — Other 
animal  products — Topics  for  investigation. 

XXV    Cattle        351 

Dairy  cattle — Profitable  and  unprofitable  cows — 
The  dairy  type — Selecting  dairy  cows  by  milk 
tests — Dairy  breeds — Feeding  for  milk  production 
— Producing  clean  milk — Beef  breeds — Judging 
cattle — Tuberculosis  in  cattle — Topics  for  investi- 
gation— Demonstrations  with  cattle — Play  con- 
tests— Club  projects. 

XXVI    Horses        376 

The  horse-raising  states — Classes  of  horses — 
Breeds — Judging  horses — Common  defects  of 
horses — Care  and  training — Feeding:  work  ra- 
tions— Topics  for  investigation — Demonstrations 
with  horses — Play  contests — Club  projects. 


COlslTElSlTS— Continued 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXVII     Swine    . 396 

Pork  region — Breeds  of  hogs — Care  of  hog 
houses — Feeding :  balanced  rations — Diseases — 
Prevention  and  treatment  for  cholera — Topics 
for  investigation — Demonstrations — Play  contests 
— Club  projects. 

XXVIII     Sheep 418 

Importance  on  farm — Breeds  of  sheep — Feeding: 
rations — Experiments  and  problems — Demonstra- 
tions— Play  contests — Club  work. 

XXIX    Poultry 428 

Importance  on  farm — Extent  of  industry — Breeds 
of  chickens — Producing  chickens — Hens  and  in- 
cubators— Testing  eggs — Feeding  chickens — Pro- 
ducing and  marketing  eggs — Housing  poultry — 
Poultry  diseases — Topics  for  investigation — Poul- 
try demonstrations — Play  contests — Club  projects. 

PART  V.     FARM  ECONOMICS 

XXX     Farm  and  Home  Management 455 

Planning  the  farm — Administration  of  farms — ■ 
Farm  accounts — Important  rules — Ten  command- 
ments of  agriculture — Topics  for  investigation — 
The  farm  house — Other  farm  buildings. 

XXXI    The  Home  Grounds  and  Wood  Lot 468 

Beautifying  the  home  grounds — Trees — The 
lawn — The  farm  wood  lot — Tree  enemies — Prob- 
lems and  experiments — Demonstrations — Play 
contests — Tree  and  lawn  club. 

XXXII    The  County  Agricultural  Agent 479 

Work  of  the  county  agent — Financial  support — 
The  county  agent  and  the  school — How  to  make 
use  of  the  county  agent. 

XXXIII    Farm  Implements  and  Mechanics 487 

Importance  of  implements  and  tools — Farm  me- 


CONTENTS— Continued 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

chanics — Use  of  cement — Shop  work — Rope  tying 
•     and    splicing — Problems    and    experiments — Play 
contests — Club  projects. 

XXXIV    Road  Building  and  Maintenance 498 

Importance  of  good  roads — Types  of  roads — Lo- 
cation of  a  road — Qualities  making  a  good  road 
— Construction  of  earth  roads — Maintenance — 
Topics  for  investigation — Road  demonstrations — 
Road  clubs. 

XXXV    Birds  and  Other  Insect  Destroyers 510 

Birds  and  their  food — Birds  helpful  to  agricul- 
ture— Harmful  birds — Other  insect  destroyers — 
Protecting  birds — Topics  for  investigation. 

XXXVI    Miscellaneous  Information 518 

How  to  remove  stains — Location  of  colleges  and 
experiment  stations. 

To  the  Teacher i 

Index xv 


AGRICULTURE 


AGRICULTURE 


PART  I.    FARM  CROPS 


CHAPTER  I 
CORN  CULTURE 

IN  the  middle  western  states  com  has  long  been  king  of 
farm  crops,  while  cotton  has  been  called  the  king  of  crops 
in  the  South.  The  recent  extension  of  the  corn  belt  into  the 
South  and  even  into  the  West  adds  still  further  to  the  im- 
portance of  corn.  The  corn  crop  of  the  United  States 
equals  in  value  that  of  cotton,  wheat  and  oats  combined, 
and  totals  over  a  billion  dollars  a  year. 

The  greater  com  belt  of  the  United  States  consists  of 
Illinois,  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Missouri,  Kansas,  Indiana  and 
Ohio.  These  seven  states  have  up  to  the  present  raised 
about  half  of  the  world's  crop  of  com.  The  average 
yield  in  these  states  is  about  40  bushels  to  the  acre,  while 
the  average  yield  for  the  entire  country  is  less  than  30 
bushels  to  the  acre. 

1.     Corn  Culture  in  the  South 

During  the  last  ten  years  the  cultivation  of  corn  as  a 
staple  farm  crop  has  made  rapid  advance  in  all  the  south- 
ern states.     The  subtropical  climate,  the  favorable  soil,  the 

1 


"V. 


AGRICULTURE 


long  seasons  for  maturing,  and  the  copious  rainfall  make 
the  southern  states  admirably  adapted  to  the  growing  of 
corn. 

Corn  an  aid  to  diversified  farming. — Corn  is  perhaps 
the  most  favorable  crop  to  use  as  a  basis  for  diversified 
farming  and  crop  rotation.  First  of  all,  it  pays.  It  also 
encourages  the  raising  of  stock.  And  its  cultivation  serves 
to  clear  the  soil  of  weeds  and  other  plant  enemies. 

Success  of  southern  corn  club  boys. — The  wonderful 
opportunities  for  profitable  corn  growing  in  the  South  are 
seen  in  the  success  of  corn  club  members  in  various  states. 
In  all  cases  the  corn  has  been  raised  under  actual  field  condi- 
tions, but  in  accordance  with  scientific  methods  of  farming. 
Each  of  five  hundred  southern  corn  club  boys  has  made  over 
100  bushels  on  his  acre.  Sixteen  of  these  boys  who  lived 
in  the  cotton  states  made  their  acres  yield  more  than  200 
bushels.  The  same  year  65  boys  in  Mississippi  averaged 
109.9  bushels  to  the  acre.  In  Alabama  92  boys  raised  5,791 
bushels  of  corn  on  92  acres.  In  North  Carolina  100  boys 
averaged  99  bushels  to  the  acre.  In  the  same  state  432 
boys  averaged  63  bushels.  In  Virginia  16  boys  averaged 
82  bushels.  In  Georgia  the  10  highest  boys  in  the  club  aver- 
aged 169.9  bushels.  In  Tennessee  15  boys  made  an  average 
yield  of  127.4.  The  same  year  the  champion  corn  grower  of 
Arkansas  made  141^  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  champion  in 
Oklahoma  made  80%  bushels.  The  champion  corn  club 
boy  of  South  Carolina  made  228  bushels  of  corn  to  the 
acre.  The  champion  of  West  Virginia  made  150  bushels 
to  the  acre.  One  of  the  champions  of  Florida  raised  over 
100  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  champion  of  Texas  made 
llOJ  bushels.  All  of  these  yields  were  made  at  a  substan- 
tial net  profit  per  acre.  Surely  with  such  records  as  these 
it  is  clearly  evident  that  corn  can  be  made  a  highly  profitable 
crop  in  the  southern  states. 


CORN  CULTURE 


Corn  roots  at  time  for  last  plowing.  The  stalks  are  about  5 
feet  high  and  stand  31  feet  apart.  Note  how  all  the  inter- 
vening space  is  filled  with  roots. 


AGRICULTURE 


2.     The  Corn  Plant 


Com  belongs  to  the  "grass"  family ;  that  is,  it  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  same  group  of  plants  as  timothy,  wheat,  rye, 
or  blue-grass.  In  order  to  study  the  corn  plant  itself, 
each  member  of  the  class  will  secure  from  a  near-by  field, 
or  bring  from  home,  a  complete  stalk  of  corn,  taking  care 
to  save  as  much  of  the  root  system  as  possible.  Then  use 
the  text  as  a  help  in  studying  the  plant. 

The  roots. — Examining  the  roots,  do  you  find  them 
tough  and  fibrous,  or  tender?  Do  the  roots  branch,  or  is 
there  a  central  tap  root?  At  earing  time  the  roots  of  a 
vigorous  plant  may  extend  down  several  feet,  and  spread 
out  so  that  they  meet  the  roots  from  other  hills. 

The  stem  and  leaves. — How  long  is  the  stem?  What 
is  its  girth  just  above  the  root?  How  many  leaves  has  it? 
From  where  do  these  start?  How  are  they  attached? 
Are  the  edges  of  the  blades  longer  than  the  center?  What 
proof  have  you? 

The  leaves  are  important  in  the  growth  of  the  plant, 
since  in  them  the  plant  food  is  worked  over  and  assimi- 
lated, and  through  them  the  respiration,  or  breathing,  of 
the  plant  is  done.  The  leaves  are  large,  and  hence  have 
to  stand  much  tugging  in  the  wind.  Are  they  stronger 
because  of  their  sheath-like  form  of  attachment?  Will 
they  tear  as  easily  in  a  strong  wind  if  the  outer  edges  are 
slightly  longer  than  the  center? 

Tassel  and  silk. — Strip  the  husks  carefully  from  an 
ear  in  the  milk  stage,  without  injuring  the  silks.  How 
many  silks  are  there?  Where  are  the  silks  attached  to 
the  ear? 

While  tassel  and  silk  are  borne  on  different  parts  of 
the  plant,  yet  it  takes  both  together  to  make  the  complete 
flower  of  the  corn  and  produce  the  ear.     The  tassel  repre- 


CORN  CULTURE  5 

sents  the  male  part,  and  the  silk  the  female  part  of  the 
flower. 

The  work  of  the  tassel  is  to  produce  pollen.  This  sifts 
off  in  fine  grains  just  as  the  corn  is  silking.  A  particle  of 
pollen  lodges  on  the  tip  of  a  silk,  and  a  growth  is  carried 
through  the  center  of  the  tiny  thread  to  its  root,  where 
the  kernel  forms.  The  pollen  in  this  way  fertilizes  the  silks, 
one  silk  for  each  kernel  of  corn.  If  for  any  reason  no 
fertilization  occurs,  no  kernels  will  be   formed. 


Record  of  Stand  of  Corn 

PLOT  NO.  


The  pollen  grains  are  very  light,  and  may  be  carried 
by  the  wind  for  many  rods,  thus  fertilizing  the  silks  of 
other  plants  than  their  own.  This  is  called  cross-fer- 
tilization. 

Have  you  ever  seen  an  ear  with  part  of  the  kernels 
white  and  the  rest  red  or  yellow?  How  is  this  to  be  ex- 
plained? A  small  patch  of  popcorn  planted  near  field  corn 
turned  out  badly  mixed,  although  the  seed  used  was  pure. 
How  do  you  account  for  the  mixture? 


6  AGRICULTURE 

3.     Good  Seed 

The  first  thing  necessary  to  a  profitable  crop  of  corn  is 
good  seed.  Poor  seed  means  a  poor  stand  of  corn  and 
many  barren  stalks.  And  it  requires  just  as  much  time 
and  labor  and  rental  for  a  field  of  corn  that  has  a  quarter 


A  sample  of  corn  showing  good  tip  ends. 

or  a  third  of  the  hills  missing  or  without  ears  as  for  the 
same  field  with  a  perfect  or  one  hundred  per  cent,  stand. 

Loss  from  poor  seed. — Let  us  see  what  a  poor  stand 
means  in  waste.  Com  planted  3J  feet  in  the  row  each 
way  has  3,556  hills  to  the  acre.  One  10-ounce  ear  to  the 
hill  will  therefore  yield  nearly  32  bushels  to  the  acre  (fig- 


CORN  CULTURE  7 

ure  this  up  and  prove).  But  an  ear  weighing  only  10 
ounces  is  considered  a  small  ear.  Two  medium-sized  ears, 
each  weighing  12J  ounces,  from  every  hill,  will  produce  80 
bushels  to  the  acre.  Most  of  the  large  yields  in  the  South 
have  been  made  by  planting  from  3^  to  4  feet  apart  and 
then  drilling  a  distance  of  from  8  inches  to  24  inches  in  the 


(Crown 


V.  >  -f^-^^c-tl?^    iHorny 
-:-5=^^"   iG.uten 


Y^:^i?^^-r  -Huu 


G«rm 


ifabryo,  / 
Boot    i 


Demonstrations  showing  results  of  planting  corn  at  different 
depths.    Diagram  of  kernel  of  corn. 


row,  planting  three  or  four  kernels  to  the  hill  and  thinning 
to  a  stand  of  two  stalks. 

Selecting  the  seed. — Seed  corn  should  be  selected  in 
the  field  and  not  from  the  wagon  or  crib^  This  is  in  part 
because  as  soon  as  the  seed  ear  is  picked  it  should  be  hung 
where  it  can  dry  out  well.  It  is  also  because  in  selecting 
seed  much  besides  the  ear  itself  must  be  taken  into  ac- 


8 


AGRICULTURE 


An  illustration  of  the  prolific  corn  common 
in  the  southern  states.  It  will  grow  2  to  8 
ears  of  corn  on  each  stalk.  It  requires  a 
subtropical  climate,  copious  rainfall  and  a 
long  season. 


Stringing  seed  corn, — the  first  step.     The  second  step.     The 
string  completed. 


CORN  CULTURE  9 

count.  The  entire  corn  plant,  stalk,  leaves,  roots  and  husk, 
as  well  as  environment,  should  be  considered.  It  is  plain 
that  ears  grown  on  stalks  that  stand  but  one  in  a  hill,  or 
next  to  missing  hills,  have  a  better  chance  than  those  that 
grow  in  full  hills.  A  large  ear  grown  under  such  favor- 
able conditions  might  not  produce  so  well  as  somewhat 
smaller  ears  grown  under  less  favorable  conditions.  We 
want  to  be  sure  that  the  ear  is  good  size  because  of  some- 
thing in  the  nature  of  the  ear  itself y  rather  than  from  what 
has  happened  to  it  while  growing.  Mature  good  ears  from 
stalks  with  several  ears  and  hills  having  two  or  three  stalks 
are  desirable,  for  this  condition  promises  a  good  yield.  The 
stalk  should  be  good  color,  short  jointed,  sturdy,  not  too 
tall,  and  have  plenty  of  broad  full  leaves. 

Caring  for  the  seed. — Caring  for  the  seed  after  it  is 
picked  is  as  important  as  its  selection.  The  great  thing 
in  caring  for  seed  corn  just  picked  from  the  field  is  to 
keep  it  free  from  insects  and  to  give  it  a  chance  to  dry 
thoroughly.  To  do  this,  it  must  be  where  it  can  get 
plenty  of  circulating  air.  The  ears  should  not  touch  one 
another,  for  then  they  will  not  dry  evenly.  Seed  corn  should 
therefore  never  be  stacked  in  piles  or  thrown  into  a  crib 
after  it  is  gathered,  but  should  be  hung  up  in  some  open 
place  sheltered  from  the  direct  sun,  and  from  all  rain  or 
other  forms  of  moisture. 

4.     Testing  the  Seed  Corn 

No  seed  corn  should  ever  be  planted  that  has  not  been 
tested  ear  by  ear  to  see  whether  it  will  germinate  and 
produce  a  strong  growth.  For,  even  if  the  seed  is  care- 
fully selected  and  cared  for,  there  are  always  some  ears 
that  will  fail  to  grow,  or  else  produce  plants  so  weak  as 
to  be  barren  or  raise  but  worthless  nubbins. 

Since  it  takes  but  a  dozen  or  fifteen  ears  to  plant  an 


10 


AGRICULTURE 


The  blotter  seed  tester.    An  excellent  type  for  school  use. 


Boys  and  girls  bringing  corn  to  school  for  judging  and  testing 
in  a  Cook  County  rural  school. 


CORN  CULTURE 


11 


acre,  and  since  an  acre  of  average  ground  should  yield  at 
least  sixty  bushels,  each  ear  of  seed  represents  from  four 
to  five  bushels  of  crop.  The  farmer's  time  can  be  spent 
in  no  more  profitable  way  than  in  making  sure  that  every 
ear  of   seed  corn  planted   is  sure  to  grow.     The  testing 


A  good  ear  and  a  poor  ear  of  corn. 

should  be  done  late  in  the  winter,  or  in  the  early  spring 
before  the  farm  work  opens. 

Preparing  for  testing. — Testing  the  seed  corn  costs 
practically  nothing  but  a  Httle  time,  care  and  attention. 
For,  while  there  are  several  excellent  seed  corn  testers  on 
the  market,  none  is  superior  to  the  several  types  that  can 


12  AGRICULTURE 

easily  be  made  at  home.  The  rag-doll  tester  can  be  easily 
made,  takes  up  but  little  space  and  is  very  convenient  for 
school  work  in  testing  of  all  kinds  of  seeds. 

Another  practical  tester  is  the  samdust  germination  box. 
This  tester  may  be  prepared  as  follows :  Construct  a  box 
30  inches  square  and  4  inches  deep.  Put  some  sawdust  in 
a  bag  and  soak  it  in  warm  water  until  it  is  well  saturated. 
Fill  the  box  half  full  of  the  sawdust,  packing  it  in  well. 
Take  a  piece  of  good  white  cloth  and  rule  it  off  in  2J-inch 
squares,  making  100  squares  in  all,  and  numbering  them 
from  1  to  100.  Place  the  cloth  on  the  sawdust  so  that  there 
will  be  a  margin  of  at  least  two  inches  between  the  sides  of 
the  box  and  the  squares.  Tack  cloth  to  the  edges  of  the 
box. 

Now  take  100  ears  of  the  corn  to  be  tested  and  lay  them 
out  in  a  row  on  a  table  or  planks.  Drive  a  nail  into  the 
table  every  tenth  ear,  separating  the  entire  lot  into  10 
groups  of  10  ears  each.  Number  the  ears  from  1  to  100 
to  correspond  with  the  squares  in  the  tester.  This  may 
be  done  by  numbering  the  places  on  the  ed^e  of  the  table 
if  care  is  taken  not  to  change  places  with  the  ears. 

Making  the  test. — Remove  one  kernel  from  near  the 
butt,  one  from  near  the  middle,  and  one  from  near  the 
tip  of  the  ear;  turn  the  ear  over  and  remove  three  ker- 
nels from  corresponding  positions  on  the  other  side  of 
the  ear.  These  six  kernels  are  to  be  placed,  germ  side  up 
and  tips  all  toward  one  side  of  the  box,  in  the  squares 
over  the  sawdust,  those  from  ear  No.  1  in  square  No.  1 
and  so  on,  until  six  kernels  have  been  taken  from  each 
of  the  100  ears  and  placed  in  the  tester. 

After  the  kernels  are  all  in  position,  thus  filling  the  100 
squares,  lay  a  piece  of  cloth  over  them,  taking  care  not  to 
disturb  their  positions.  Sprinkle  this  cloth  well  with  warm 
water.     Now  lay  over  this  another  cloth  about  twice  the 


CORN  CULTURE 


13 


School  testing  seed  corn  in  sawdust  germination  boxes. 


Putting  the  rag  dolls  into  a  bucket,  which  is  then  wrapped  in 
old  newspapers  and  kept  in  a  safe  place  until  the  kernels  of 
corn  have  sprouted. 


14  AGRICULTURE 

size  of  the  box.  Fill  in  on  top  about  two  inches  of  damp 
sawdust,  packing"  it  down  very  firmly.  Then  fold  the  edges 
of  the  cloth  over  the  sawdust,  covering  it  so  that  it  will 
not  dry  out. 

Reading  the  test. — At  the  end  of  the  germination 
period  the  cover  must  be  removed  without  disturbing  the 
kernels.  This  can  be  done  by  carefully  rolling  up  the  top 
pad  of  sawdust  in  its  cloth.  The  sprouts  will  be  some  two 
inches  long,  and  may  in  some  cases  have  grown  through 
the  first  cloth  covering. 

It  is  easy  now  to  tell  which  are  the  strong,  weak  or 
dead  seed  ears.  All  ears  should  be  rejected  if  even  one 
of  the  six  kernels  failed  to  sprout.  For  a  loss  of  one  out  of 
six  means  16  2-2>  per  cent,  of  the  crop  gone  if  all  ears  were 
of  this  kind. 

Ears  whose  six  kernels  may  all  sprout,  but  which  start 
weakly,  should  also  be  thrown  out.  For  it  is  these  weak 
plants  that  later  turn  out  to  be  barren,  or  prove  an  easy 
prey  to  dry  weather  or  some  insect  enemy.  If  only  those 
ears  are  planted  whose  six  kernels  all  produce  strong  vig- 
orous sprouts  in  the  germination  box,  the  greatest  obstacle 
in  the  way  of  a  perfect  stand  will  have  been  removed. 

5.     Seed  Bed  and  Cultivation 

Corn  in  the  South  requires  a  deep  and  well-prepared 
seed  bed  as  well  as  a  rich  soil.  In  western  and  northern 
states  the  plowing  need  not  be  so  deep,  chiefly  on  account 
of  the  winter  snows,  freezing,  afid  a  more  virgin  soil. 

Plowing. — Plowing  for  corn  in  most  southern  regions 
may  with  profit  be  prepared  in  the  fall  and  should  reach 
a  depth  of  from  8  to  12  inches.  In  many  cases  it  will 
pay  to  use  a  subsoil  plow  set  to  even  a  greater  depth. 
Fields  that  have  had  but  shallow  plowing  should  not,  how- 


CORN  CULTURE 


15 


Corn  club  boys  gathering  seed  corn. 


This  shows  crop  results  of  good  seed  and  poor  seed.  Each  pic- 
ture shows  the  yield  from  one  acre  in  adjoining  fields.  Upper 
picture,  poor  seed:  yield,  22.8  bushels;  marketable,  73.9%; 
nubbins,  26.1%;  seed,  none.  Lower  picture,  good  seed:  yield, 
66.5  bushels;  marketable,  86.7%;  nubbins,  6,3%;  seed,  7%. 


16  AGRICULTURE 

ever,  be  plowed  to  full  depth  the  first  season,  but  should  be 
gradually  increased  from  year  to  year,  as  too  large  a  mass 
of  subsoil  may  be  turned  up  at  one  time. 

Deep  plowing  brings  to  the  surface  comparatively  new 
and  unused  soil,  admits  air  and  moisture  to  a  greater 
depth,  and  allows  the  roots  to  penetrate  farther  into  the 
soil.  The  turning  under  of  organic  matter  also  provides 
a  supply  of  humus  and  makes  the  lower  strata  of  the  soil 
more  porous. 

Why  com  needs  to  be  cultivated. — Corn  is  to  be  cul- 
tivated after  planting  for  three  main  purposes:  (1)  To 
kill  the  weeds,  (2)  to  admit  air  to  the  roots,  and  (3)  to 
form  dust  mulch  and  preserve  the  moisture  of  the  soil.     / 

From  the  time  germination  begins  the  growth  of  the 
plant  must  be  unchecked  if  a  full  crop  is  to  be  secured. 
When  corn  has  become  yellow  and  spindling  from  being 
choked  by  weeds,  or  from  the  baking  of  uncultivated  soil 
around  it,  it  is  permanently  injured  and  will  never  fully 
recover.  Only  the  rich  green  color  and  sturdy  stock  of  the 
rapidly  growing  plant  give  promise  of  a  full  yield. 

When  to  begin  cultivation. — Cultivation  should  begin 
early.  Under  average  conditions,  disking  and  harrowing 
before  planting  and  two  harrowings  after  planting  should 
be  given  before  the  corn  comes  up.  This  will  keep  the  soil 
from  baking,  and  keep  the  weeds  down  until  the  plants  are 
large  enough  to  cultivate.  The  time  to  kill  weeds  is  just  as 
they  are  starting.  Let  them  once  get  well  rooted,  and  they 
are  hard  to  manage. 

The  shovel  or  disk  cultivator  should  be  started  as  soon 
as  the  corn  is  well  up,  so  that  the  rows  can  be  easily  fol- 
lowed. Even  if  the  weeds  do  not  seem  to  be  starting,  they 
are  surely  taking  root.  Cultivation  will  also  break  up 
the  crusted  soil,  and  admit  air  to  the  growing  roots.  And 
this  must  be  done  or  their  growth  will  be  checked. 


CORN  CULTURE 


17 


Methods  of  cultivation. — Four  or  five  cultivations  may 
be  enough  after  the  corn  comes  up,  though  this  must  de- 
pend on  the  character  of  the  soil,  the  weeds,  and  the 
amount  of  moisture.  The  common  tendency  among  our 
best  farmers  is  toward  shallow  cultivation.  This  must  de- 
pend on  whether  the  soil  seems  to  pack  heavily  and  be- 
come hard  underneath.  If  it  does,  the  earlier  plowings 
may  well  be  of  some  depth.  The  important  thing  is  not 
to  break  or  injure  the  growing  roots.  For  a  broken  root 
always  means  loss  of  vitality  and  food  to  the  plant. 


Shallow   cultivating   of  corn  with   riding  cultivator. 

It  is  evident  that  deep  cultivation  after  the  roots  are 
well  spread  is  a  mistake.  The  old  method  of  setting  the 
shovels  deep  and  "hilling  up"  the  corn  the  last  two  times 
through  is  no  longer  followed  in  scientific  farming.  The 
last  cultivations  should  be  shallow.  Cultivation  may  con- 
tinue with  advantage  up  to  the  time  the  corn  is  tasseling 
if  care  is  taken  not  to  break  the  roots.     In  dry  seasons, 


18  AGRICULTURE 

the  late  cultivation  is  of  very  great  advantage,  because 
it  keeps  a  loose  soil  mulch,  which  does  much  to  prevent 
the  evaporation  of  the  sub-surface  moisture. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Examine  three  different  farmers'  corn-fields,  and 
see  if  you  can  tell  whether  the  plowing  was  deep  or  shal- 
low. What  was  the  character  of  the  cultivation  of  the 
crop?    Are  the  fields  weedy?    If  so,  what  was  the  cause? 

2.  Suppose  that  next  season  proves  to  be  hot  and  dry. 
How  should  the  corn  in  your  vicinity  be  cultivated?  Sup- 
pose the  season  should  be  wet.  How,  then,  should  the 
corn  be  cultivated? 

3.  Why  does  keeping  the  soil  pulverized  and  loose  on 
top  prevent  loss  of  moisture?  What  causes  the  corn  to 
look  yellow  and  stunted  when  the  ground  becomes  baked? 

4.  Suppose  a  careless  boy  covers  up  five  hills  out  of 
every  hundred  in  plowing  a  field  of  forty  acres  of  corn. 
The  crop  yields  38  bushels  to  the  acre.  How  much  would 
it  have  yielded  if  he  had  covered  up  none?  How  much  did 
his  carelessness  cost  if  the  corn  is  worth  50  cents  a  bushel? 

6.     Corn  Enemies 

Plants,  like  animals,  are  subject  to  certain  diseases. 
Corn  is  usually  a  healthy  plant,  and  not  affected  by  so  many 
diseases  as  some  of  the  other  crops..  The  most  serious 
enemies  of  corn  are  various  insects,  such  as  the  com  root- 
worm,  the  corn-root  aphis  or  louse,  the  wireworm,  the 
cutworm,  and  the  ear-worm. 

The  corn  root-v\^orm. — This  pest  is  responsible  for 
greater  loss  to  the  corn  crop  than  any  other  cause  except 
poor  seed,  and  probably  inflicts  more  damage  than  all  other 
insects  put  together.  Because  the  root-worm  is  very  small 
and  does  its  work  underground,  it  is  seldom  seen,  and 
probably  could  not  be  identified  by  many  farmers  to  whom 


CORN  CULTURE  19 

it  has  caused  a  loss  of  thousands  of  dollars.  It  is  present 
in  some  degree  in  almost  every  corn-field. 

At  full  size  the  root-worm  is  about  one-third  inch 
in  length,  and  as  large  around  as  a  pin.  It  is  whitish 
in  color,  with  its  head  and  the  first  segment  of  its  body 
brown.  As  soon  as  the  young  worms  are  hatched  out  they 
enter  the  roots  of  the  growing  corn,  burrowing  back  and 
forth  just  under  the  outside  covering.  Half  a  dozen  worms 
are  sometimes  found  in  the  one  root,  and  as  many  as  200 
in  a  single  hill.  The  worm  destroys  the  tender  part  of  the 
root,  which  turns  brown  and  rots  off,  leaving  only  the 
stubs  of  roots.  As  a  result,  the  stalk  of  corn  is  deprived 
of  its  means  of  securing  moisture  and  nourishment.  The 
yield  is  greatly  reduced,  the  ears  are  light  and  chalky,  and 
many  stalks  are  barren. 

There  is  as  yet  no  way  of  stopping  these  pests  once  they 
begin  on  a  field  of  corn.  But  the  remedy  is  simple  for  the 
next  year — change  the  field  to  some  other  crop.  For  this 
will  leave  the  young  worms  with  no  food,  and  they  will 
all  die.  Later  the  field  can  again  be  planted  in  corn,  and 
be  free  from  root-worms  for  at  least  the  first  year. 

The  corn-root  aphis  or  louse. — After  the  root-worm, 
the  worst  insect  enemy  of  corn  is  the  corn-root  aphis.  This 
is  a  small  louse,  no  larger  than  the  head  of  a  pin,  and  of  a 
bluish-green  color.  These  lice  are  found  in  groups  on  the 
roots  of  corn,  from  which  they  suck  the  juices  intended  for 
the  growth  of  the  plant. 

The  worst  damage  by  the  aphis  is  done  while  the  corn 
is  very  young.  The  lice  sometimes  destroy  the  roots  even 
before  the  plant  comes  up.  Their  work  on  the  corn  roots 
causes  the  plant  to  turn  yellow  and  take  on  a  sickly  appear- 
ance. If  they  are  very  severe  in  their  attack,  the  tips  of  the 
leaves  become  purplish,  and  the  stem  slightly  reddish  in 
color.     The  yield  of  the  crop  is  greatly  reduced,  and  its 


20 


AGRICULTURE 


.Sfe 

CD      . 

CQ  ^ 

-^ 

o 


O 

§2 


:^^ 


CORN  CULTURE  21 

ripening  delayed.  Rotation  of  crops  is  one  of  the  surest 
remedies  against  this  pest. 

Wireworms. — Wireworms  also  make  their  home  in 
sod,  and  hence  are  worst  in  newly  broken  ground.  They 
are  the  larvae  of  the  click-beetle,  whose  eggs  are  laid  in 
meadows  and  pastures  in  the  fall.  They  hatch  out  as 
small  reddish-brown  worms  in  the  early  spring.  The 
worms  attack  the  sprouting  kernel,  and  also  bore  holes 
through  the  young  plant.  Fall  plowing  and  rotation  of 
crops  are  the  best  remedies  against  the  wireworm. 

The  corn  ear-worm. — The  worm  often  found  working 
in  the  tips  of  corn  ears  has  a  wide  range  of  appetite.  It 
attacks  not  only  com,  but  cotton,  tobacco  and  many  other 
plants. 

The  com  ear-worm  lives  through  the  winter  in  the 
pupa  state,  and  comes  out  in  the  spring  as  a  moth.  There 
are  several  broods  each  season.  The  harm  done  by  the 
ear-worms  is  often  most  noticeable  on  sweet  corn  intended 
for  canning.  There  is  no  certain  remedy  known,  though 
fall  plowing  is  thought  to  reduce  their  number. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Go  into  a  corn-field  and  secure  several  of  the  beetles 
of  the  corn  root-worm.  They  are  green,  and  about  twice 
the  size  of  a  pinhead.  Learn  to  recognize  the  insect  at 
sight. 

2.  If  possible  secure  a  number  of  the  pupae  of  the 
corn  root-worm.  They  can  be  found  in  great  numbers 
around  the  roots  of  corn  in  a  field  where  the  worms  have 
been  at  work.  Keep  the  pupae  in  warm  moist  soil  in  a 
box  covered  with  netting  or  glass  and  watch  for  the 
beetles  to  come  out. 

3.  Find  hills  of  corn  which  have  suffered  from  the 
corn  root-worm.  How  do  you  discover  where  they  have 
been  at  work?  Does  the  hill  pull  up  easily  as  compared 
with  a  good  hill?     What  is  the  condition  of  the  ear? 


22 


AGRICULTURE 


Corn  ear  injured  by  corn  moth  during  storage.     One  of  tlie 
South's  greatest  enemies  to  stored  corn. 


CORN  CULTURE  23 

4.  Observe  several  fields  that  have  been  in  corn  for  a 
number  of  years  in  succession.  Do  they  show  signs  of  the 
root-worm?  Compare  with  fields  on  which  a  rotation  of 
crops  has  been  grown. 

5.  Secure  several  ears  of  com  in  which  the  ear-worm 
has  been  working.  How  does  the  worm  proceed  in  its 
attack?  Make  a  study  of  the  worm,  and  become  able  to 
identify  it  at  sight.  Would  you  want  to  eat  canned  sweet 
corn  from  a  field  which  had  suffered  from  these  worms? 

6.  If  possible,  secure  samples  of  the  corn-root  aphis, 
the  cutworm  and  the  wireworm.  Learn  to  identify  all  these 
surely  and  quickly. 

7.  Other  such  enemies  to  be  noted  are:  the  corn  moth 
or  caterpillar,  the  white  grub,  and  the  corn  hill  bug.  If 
possible,  secure  specimens  of  these,  learn  to  identify  them, 
tell  how  they  damage  the  crop,  and  how  to  control  them. 

7.     Corn  Play  Contests 

Play  contests  are  one  of  the  most  interesting  means 
of  learning  certain  facts  connected  with  agriculture.  The 
games  and  contests  in  connection  with  various  farm  activi- 
ties add  interest,  develop  skill  and  furnish  real  fun  be- 
sides. 

Suitable  play  contests. — The  teacher  and  pupils  can 
organize  such  contests  as  the  following  in  connection  with 
the  regular  school  activities,  for  the  playgrounds  at  recess, 
or  at  public  events,  such  as  literary  programs,  fairs,  and 
corn  club  festivals. 

\.  Seed  corn  stringing  contests. 

2.  Variety  or  strain  naming  contest. 

3.  Corn,  bread  baking  contest. 

4.  Corn  judging  contest. 

5.  Corn  guessing  game. 

6.  Corn  husking  contest. 

7.  Corn  spelling  contest. 

8.  Oral   corn   recipe-giving  contest  to   determine  who 


24  AGRICULTURE 

can  give  the  largest  number  of  corn  recipes  in  a  period  of 
five  minutes. 

All  of  these  contests  should  be  judged  in  general  on 
speed,  skill,  condition  of  finished  product,  accuracy,  etc. 
(See  Circular  104,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  for  further 
instruction  and  score-cards  on  all  corn  contests.) 

8.     Corn  Demonstrations 

"Demonstrations"  are  now  becoming  common  in  ex- 
tension work.  The  purpose  of  a  demonstration  is  to  teach 
some  definite  and  well-known  truth,  by  means  of 
the  concrete  example.  While  an  experiment  seeks  to  dis- 
cover a  truth  concerning  the  work  of  the  farm,  a  demon- 
stration seeks  to  show  others  how  to  put  this  truth  into 
practise. 

Demonstrations  by  the  school. — Such  demonstrations 
as  the  following  may  be  conducted  by  the  school  for  spe- 
cial exercises,  evening  programs,  club  meetings,  district, 
county  or  state  fairs,  or  special  farm  and  club  festivals : 

Demonstrations  in  the  preparation  of  a  seed  corn  test 
box,  a  rag-doll  tester,  and  how  to  make  the  test. 

Demonstrations  of  how  to  make  a  seed  tray,  a  seed  dry- 
ing rack,  and  how  to  hang  or  place  the  seed  corn. 

Seed  corn  stringing  demonstration. 

Field  demonstrations  in  plowing,  cultivation,  seed  selec- 
tion, hand  pollenizing,  etc. 

Home  economics  demonstration  showing  how  to  make 
com  food  products,  valuable  dishes,  such  as  hominy,  corn 
mush,  bread,  etc. 

9.     Corn  Club  Work 
A    great    many    thousand    farm    boys    and    girls    are 
now  enrolled  in  agricultural  and  home-economic  clubs,  most 


CORN  CULTURE  25 

of  which  are  connected  with  the  schools.  CKib  work  is 
the  performance  of  a  definite  farm,  garden,  or  home  enter- 
prise, and  is  based  on  the  best  known  farm  and  home 
practises;  it  is  an  effort  to  extend  the  work  of  school 
and  classroom  to  the  home.  It  is  a  back-to-the-home  move- 
ment in  which  theory  is  translated  into  successful  practise. 
Club  work  in  connection  with  the  school  may  consist  of  a 
number  of  enterprises  or  club  projects  such  as  corn,  garden,, 
market  garden,  poultry,  sugar  beet,  cotton,  alfalfa,  the  home 
garden  and  canning  club  work. 

The  com  club. — One  of  the  most  interesting  club 
projects  is  the  growing  of  an  acre  of  corn  on  a  business 
basis.  Boys  and  girls  ranging  in  age  from  ten  to  nineteen 
years  are  eligible,  and  pupils  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  an  A  class  from  ten  to  fifteen  years  inclusive,  and 
a  B  class  from  fifteen  to  nineteen.  The  basis  of  school 
credits  for  corn  club  work  may  be : 

1.  Greatest  yield  per  acre 30 

2.  Best  showing-  of  profit  on  investment 30 

3.  Best  exhibit  of  ten  ears 20 

4.  Crop  record  and  story  of  "How  I  Made  My  Crop" 20 

Total  score 1 100 

Plan  of  work. — The  following  plan  should  govern  the 
conduct  of  the  work :  It  should  be  considered  a  legiti- 
mate means  of  extension  service  for  the  school, — a  part  of 
regular  school  work  by  which  plants,  soils,  insects,  plant 
diseases,  crop  management,  labor  income,  farm  manage- 
ment, etc.,  may  be  studied  systematically  for  an  entire  crop- 
ping season.  This  necessitates  making  use  of  the  district, 
state  and  national  club  leaders,  who  always  stand  ready 
to  help  organize  clubs  and  assist  in  the  work.  Always  con- 
sult them  about  rules,  requirements  and  available  awards, 
prizes  and  educational  trips. 


26  AGRICULTURE 

Report  blanks. — Every  club  member  should  have  a 
crop  report  blank  making  a  record  of  observations,  re- 
ceipts and  expenses  at  the  beginning  of  the  season,  and 
another  on  which  to  make  a  complete  report  at  the  close 
of  the  season.  These  blanks  are  furnished  free  by  your 
state  college  of  agriculture  and  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture.  Definite  credit  for  this  club  work 
may  be  given  in  connection  with  the  class  work  in  agri- 
culture and  in  connection  with  other  related  subjects  of  the 
school.  A  corn  club  member  who  has  made  an  average 
grade  of  ninety  per  cent.,  as  determined  by  the  basis  of 
award  given  on  page  25,  has  given  undisputed  evidence  that 
he  has  not  only  agreed  to  do  the  work,  but  has  studied 
carefully  the  follow-up,  organization  and  cultural  instruc- 
tions ;  put  them  into  practise ;  kept  a  careful  record  or  cost 
accounting  of  all  observations,  expenses,  receipts,  etc.,  and 
is  ready  for  scholastic  recognition  at  the  hands  of  his 
teacher. 


CHAPTER  II 
AGRICULTURE  IN  THE  SOUTH 

AGRICULTURE  is  the  chief  of  southern  industries, 
and  the  South  and  Southwest  are  favored  above  many 
other  regions  of  the  United  States  in  agricultural  conditions. 
They  have  an  excellent  climate,  long  seasons,  and,  in  most 
regions,  a  naturally  rich,  productive  soil.  Almost  every  crop 
that  can  be  raised  in  the  North  will  grow  successfully  in  the 
South,  and  many  others  besides.  The  South  has  no  long 
hard  winters  to  close  the  soil  to  cultivation  and  enforce 
idleness  upon  the  farmers. 

Almost  every  class  of  farm  animal  thrives  throughout 
the  South.  Cattle,  horses,  hogs  and  poultry  can  be  grown 
more  cheaply  here  than  in  northern  regions,  for  forage  is 
available  most  of  the  year;  warm  and  expensive  bams 
are  not  required.  Nor  must  a  large  amount  of  feed  be 
stored  against  the  long  winter  months,  hence  the  profit  on 
live  stock  is  greater. 

1.    Diversified  Farming  in  the  South 

By  diversified  farming  is  meant  the  growing  of  a  num- 
ber of  different  crops  instead  of  devoting  practically  the 
whole  farm  to  one  crop,  such  as  cotton. 

Tendency  to  one-crop  system. — Not  only  in  the  South 
but  in  many  regions  of  the  North  and  West  as  well,  there 
has  been  a  tendency  to  a  one-crop  system.  Great  areas 
of  the  North  have  been  devoted  to  corn  or  wheat,  while 
many  new  regions  of  the  West  raise  wheat  almost  exclu- 

27 


28 


AGRICULTURE 


IN  THE  SOUTH  29 

sively.  The  principal  crop  of  many  regions  of  the  South 
has  been  cotton,  which  has  in  some  places  been  grown  suc- 
cessively on  the  same  soil  for  twenty-five  or  fifty  years. 

Several  causes  have  led  to  a  one-crop  system  of  agri- 
culture. In  certain  cases  the  soil  is  better  adapted  to  some 
one  crop  than  to  others  and  will  therefore  yield  a  larger 
profit  to  the  farmer.  The  natural  tendency  therefore  is 
to  plant  chiefly  the  crop  that  will  bring  the  largest  imme- 
diate returns.  Again,  where  but  one  crop  is  raised  a  smaller 
assortment  of  tools  and  implements  is  required,  hence 
less  expense  needed  for  equipment.  It  is  also  easier  to 
learn  the  art  of  farming  where  but  one  crop  is  used  than 
where  a  number  are  grown,  each  requiring  a  different  sys- 
tem of  planting,  cultivating  and  harvesting.  Certain  crops 
may  also  find  a  more  ready  and  constant  market  than 
others,  thus  encouraging  farmers  to  grow  the  product  that 
can  be  most  easily  turned  into  cash. 

Disadvantages  of  the  one-crop  system. — ^There  are 
great  disadvantages,  however,  connected  with  the  one-crop 
system.  These  disadvantages  are  felt  more  in  the  South 
than  in  any  other  region  of  the  United  States,  largely  be- 
cause cotton  was  practically  the  only  crop  raised. 

First,  any  one-crop  system  is  sure  to  wear  out  the  soil. 
This  is  easily  seen  from  the  fact  that  the  crop  must  re- 
move the  same  elements  from  the  soil  year  after  year.  And, 
without  the  return  of  sufficient  fertilizer  to  make  up  this 
loss,  the  soil  is  depleted  until  only  a  fraction  of  its  orig- 
inal fertility  remains.  Northern  and  western  regions  where 
upon  virgin  prairie  soil  they  easily  produced  40  to  50  bushels 
of  wheat  to  the  acre  found  that  after  some  years  of  wheat 
growing  without  any  rotation  of  crops  the  yield  had  been 
reduced  to  a  half  or  a  quarter  of  what  it  was  upon  the  new 
soil.  In  a  similar  way,  thousands  of  acres  of  southern 
land  that  originally  produced  large  crops  of  cotton  have 


30  AGRICULTURE 

now  become  so  impoverished  as  to  yield  only  a  small  part 
of  what  the  soil  is  capable  of  producing. 

Second,  a  one-crop  system  encourages  the  growth  of 
plant  enemies  in  the  soil.  The  insects  that  feed  upon  the 
crop  one  season  are  left  upon  the  field  ready  to  reproduce 
their  kind  and  attack  the  next  season's  crop.  Various 
bacteria  and  fungous  enemies  also  have  a  tendency  to  mul- 
tiply when  the  same  crop  is  produced  from  year  to  year. 
Let  the  crop  be  changed,  however,  and  the  insects  and 
fungi,  not  finding  the  necessary  food,  die  and  the  field  is 
in  a  measure  cleared  of  their  danger.  Weed  enemies  dis- 
appear in  a  similar  way  in  the  presence  of  the  new  crop. 

Third,  a  one-crop  system  always  leaves  the  farmer  at 
the  mercy  of  weather  conditions.  If  the  season  turns  out 
too  dry  or  too  wet,  or  in  any  other  way  unfavorable  so 
that  a  failure  of  the  crop  results,  the  farmer  is  left  with- 
out resources  and  faces  financial  failure.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  he  has  a  variety  of  crops,  seasonal  troubles  which 
affect  one  crop  may  not  affect  others,  so  that  the  farmer 
does  not  suffer  an  entire  loss.  If  he  raises  but  one  crop 
and  the  insect  enemies  or  other  reverses  prove  strong 
enough  to  ruin  the  crop,  he  is  left  in  poverty.  But  these 
plant  enemies  require  different  seasonal  conditions  for  their 
best  thriving,  hence  when  they  attack  one  crop  they  are  not 
so  likely  to  injure  others. 

Fourth,  one  of  the  most  serious  disadvantages  of  a 
one-crop  system  is  the  changing  market  conditions.  If  for 
any  reason  the  market  happens  to  fail  for  the  par- 
ticular crop  raised,  no  matter  how  good  the  yield  may 
have  been,  the  farmer  is  helpless  with  the  crop  left  on 
his  hands.  This  was  well  illustrated  when  in  the  season 
of  1914  the  South  had  hundreds-  of  thousands  of  bales  of 
cotton  for  which  there  was  no  market  because  of  the  Euro- 
pean, war.     Thousands  of  southern   farmers   found  them- 


IN  THE  SOUTH 


31 


a 

>» 

o 

W 

^?! 


2? 


32  AGRICULTURE 

selves  almost  bankrupt  with  a  large  cotton  crop  on  their 
hands.  The  farmer  who  produced  several  different  crops 
instead  of  one  could  not  be  caught  in  this  condition. 

Fifth,  diversified  farming  produces  an  income  for  the 
farmer  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  whereas  a  one- 
crop  system  brings  in  all  its  returns  at  one  time,  leaving 
the  remainder  of  the  year  practically  without  income.  In 
this  case  the  running  expenses  of  the  home  must  often 
cause  the  farmer  to  go  into  debt,  and  his  crop  is  not  in- 
frequently mortgaged  before  it  is  harvested,  and  must  be 
sold  even  at  a  low  price  in  order  to  meet  the  debt. 

Sixth,  no  one-crop  system  affords  a  wide  enough  range 
of  forage  and  grains  to  enable  the  farmer  to  raise  the  stock 
which  every  farm  should  have.  Successful  farmers  every- 
where are  coming  to  depend  more  and  more  on  farm  stock 
as  a  large  part  of  the  profit  from  agriculture. 

Advantages  from  diversified  farming. — From  these 
facts  it  is  easy  to  see  some  of  the  chief  advantages  of  di- 
versified farming.  Through  raising  a  variety  of  products 
and  thereby  rotating  the  crops  the  farmer  can  build  up 
and  renovate  the  soil.  He  can  free  his  crops  from  the 
worst  dangers  of  insects  and  other  enemies.  He  can 
relieve  himself  of  the  danger  of  entire  failure  coming  from 
an  adverse  season  or  other  conditions  threatening  the  suc- 
cess of  one  particular  crop.  He  can  become  relatively 
independent  of  poor  market  conditions  affecting  any  one 
crop  or  can  secure  for  his  farm  an  income  that  is  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  year  so  that  he  need  not  go  into 
debt  for  the  current  expenses  of  his  farm  and  household. 
Diversified  farming  includes  the  raising  of  a  variety  of  stock 
as  well  as  a  variety  of  crops,  and  thus  adds  to  the  income 
while  at  the  same  time  it  reduces  the  danger  of  failure 
through  the  loss  of  any  one  crop. 


IN  THE  SOUTH 


33 


2.     Crops  Suitable  for  Southern  Farms 

Frequent  failure  of  cotton  to  find  a  profitable  market 
and  the  ravages  of  the  boll  weevil  have  induced  many  south- 
ern farmers  to  add  crops  v^hich  they  had  not  previously 
raised  on  their  farms. 

The  cereals. — Corn  can  be  raised  in  most  regions  of 
the  South  as  profitably  as  in  the  North.  Indeed  the  long 
growing  season  makes  it  possible  to  produce  a  much  more 


Field  of  cow-peas  ready  to  plow  under  as  green  manure. 

prolific  variety  of  corn  than  is  possible  in  northern  states. 
Under  right  cultural  conditions  much  of  the  land  now  used 
for  growing  cotton  can  be  more  profitably  employed  in  the 
raising  of  corn.  It  is  evident  that  this  will  give  an  oppor- 
tunity for  rotation  and  thereby  secure  all  advantages.  Oats 
can  also  be  grown  in  most  regions  of  the  South  and  prove 
almost  as  profitable  as  corn.  Wheat  may  also  find  a  larger 
place  in  southern  agriculture,  especially  when  the  right 
variety  for  this  region  can  be  found. 


34 


AGRICULTURE 


A  stalk 


of  prolific  corn  well  adapted  to  soutliern  agriculture. 


IN  THE  SOUTH  35 

The  vegetables. — The  South  is  the  great  vegetable 
region  of  the  United  States  and  can  more  profitably  pro- 
duce most  varieties  than  can  any  other  section.  Potatoes 
can  be  grown  to  good  advantage  in  many  of  the  states. 
Cabbages,  tomatoes,  melons,  sweet  potatoes  and  nearly  ev- 
ery other  garden  vegetable  will  thrive  in  most  states,  and 
will,  on  good  soil,  produce  two  or  even  three  crops  a  year. 

Forage  crops. — While  certain  of  the  forage  crops 
most  successful  in  the  North  are  not  adapted  to  the  South, 
there  is  a  wide  range  of  both  grasses  and  legumes  suited  to 
southern  conditions.  Alfalfa,  Johnson  grass,  cow-peas,  soy- 
beans, Bermuda  grass,  lespedeza  and  the  vetches  are  freely 
grown  in  their  respective  regions. 

3.     Animals  Adapted  to  Southern  Farming 

Cattle. — Cattle  can  be  more  cheaply  and  profitably 
produced  in  the  South  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  country. 
This  is  because  of  the  mild  climate  making  it  possible  to 
use  pastures  for  the  greater  part  of  the  feed,  and  also 
because  of  the  absence  of  the  long  period  of  cold  which  not 
only  requires  more  expensive  feeding  but  often  reduces  the 
amount  of  beef  or  milk.  Both  dairy  and  beef  cattle  should 
be  raised  more  extensively  through  the  southern  states  than 
is  now  the  case. 

Hogs. — The  South  can  also  raise  hogs  to  excellent 
advantage.  The  southern  people  are  more  extensive  meat 
eaters  than  those  of  the  North  and  yet  raise  a  comparatively 
small  proportion  of  their  meat.  Hogs  can  be  grown  very 
largely  upon  forage,  using  grain  feeds  only  for  fattening. 
Pork  can  be  produced  more  cheaply  pound  by  pound,  there- 
fore, in  southern  regions  than  elsewhere. 

Horses  and  mules. — The  same  conditions  that  make 
it  profitable  to  raise  cattle  and  hogs  in  the  South  also  make 


36 


AGRICULTURE 


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IN  THE  SOUTH  37 

profitable  the  production  of  horses  and  mules.  Pastures 
are  available  almost  the  entire  year  and  crops  of  forage  can 
be  raised  following  grain  or  cotton  crops,  so  that  the  income 
from  horses  or  mules  can,  on  many  farms,  be  made  almost 
clear  profit. 

Poultry. — Probably  no  more  important  and  profit- 
able extension  of  farm  products  in  the  South  can  be  made 
than  through  the  raising  of  more  poultry.  The  feed  re- 
quired can  be  grown  very  cheaply,  while  the  shelter  may 
also  be  inexpensive.  Southern  farmers  could  add  many 
millions  of  dollars  to  the  income  of  their  farms  every  year 
by  raising  more  chickens,  as  well  as  turkeys,  ducks,  geese 
and  squabs. 

4.    Soil  Management  in  the  South 

The  management  of  the  soil  in  the  southern  states  needs 
careful  study  with  reference  to  the  long  growing  season, 
the  open  winters,  lack  of  winter  rest  periods,  and  the  thin 
and  rather  depleted  condition  of  a  great  deal  of  southern 
soil. 

Use  of  fertilizers. — There  are  two  important  methods 
of  fertilizing  the  soil.  First,  and  most  important,  is  to  en- 
rich the  soil  by  deep  tillage,  the  growing  of  legumes,  fol- 
lowing a  carefully  planned  system  of  crop  rotation,  and  the 
adding  of  natural  barnyard  manures.  Second,  these  meth- 
ods should  be  supplemented  by  adding  commercial  fertili- 
zer such  as  experience  and  experimental  investigation 
prove  practical. 

Fall  plowing. — Most  of  the  southern  land  should  be 
given  fall  plowing  from  8  to  14  inches  in  depth.  This  will 
enable  the  soil  to  "breathe,"  taking  the  place  of  the  freezing 
of  the  soil  in  the  North.  It  also  permits  the  seed  bed  to 
absorb  the  rains  of  the  fall  and  winter  and  conserve  them 
for   the   next   season's    crop.      On    deep    fall-plowed   land 


38  AGRICULTURE 

southern  crops  flourish  in  dry  winters,  because  the  plants 
are  strong  and  have  great  feeding  areas  for  the  root  sys- 
tems. They  also  do  better  on  deep-plowed  soil  during  the 
rainy  winters  because  of  improved  drainage.  Fall  plow- 
ing prevents  washing  and  leeching  of  the  soils  during  the 
winter,  and  lessens  the  burden  of  work  during  the  rush  of 
spring  farming. 

Winter  cover  crops.^In  the  southern  states  the 
winter  cover  crop  is  one  of  the  important  factors  in  good 
farm  management.  This  is  because  the  soil  needs  to  be 
covered  to  protect  it  from  the  winds  of  the  winter  months 
and  to  save  it  from  washing  and  leeching.  The  cover  crop 
also  furnishes  forage  for  stock.  In  the  spring  of  the  year 
the  forage  crop  can  be  plowed  under  to  fertilize  the  soil. 

Terracing  of  hillsides. — Thin  clay  soils  or  sandy  roll- 
ing land  should  be  protected  against  washing  rains.  Ter- 
races are  usually  arranged  so  as  to  break  the  long  slope  of 
the  hillside.  All  hillside  land  should  be  plowed  deep  and 
cultivation  should  all  be  done  on  a  parallel  with  the  base. 
A  great  deal  of  hillside  land  now  being  used  for  the  pro- 
duction of  grains  might  better  be  used  for  pasture,  wood-lot, 
and  the  growing  of  legumes.  The  roots  of  grasses  and 
trees  bind  the  soil  together  and  prevent  erosion. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Why  are  fall  plowing  and  the  preparation  of  the  seed 
bed  by  deep  plowing  more  important  in  the  South  than  in 
the  northern  states  ? 

2.  Why  are  cover  crops  needed  In  the  South  and  not 
in  many  of  the  northern,  central  and  western  states? 

3.  Do  you  know  of  farms  in  your  vicinity  which  have 
long  been  used  to  grow  one  crop?  If  so,  has  this  crop 
diminished  in  yield  ?    Why  ? 

4.  What  crops  might  be  added  to  the  list  now  raised 
in  your  vicinity?    Do  you  know  the  methods  of  planting, 


IX  THE  SOUTH 


39 


X    £ 


40  AGRICULTURE 

cultivating,  and  harvesting  the  new  crops  available  to  your 
community  ? 

5.  What  plans  are  now  under  consideration  for  further 
diversification  of  the  farm  crops  or  animals  on  your  home 
farm  ?  Compare  with  the  reports  from  other  pupils  in  the 
school.  Talk  with  your  father  about  the  possibility  of 
further  diversification. 

6.  What  bearing  does  rotation  of  crops,  clean  culture, 
and  careful  seed  selection  have  on  the  elimination  of  plant 
insects  and  other  enemies? 

5.     Demonstrations 

1.  Show  by  use  of  pile  of  soil  how  to  terrace  hillsides. 

2.  Demonstrate  manner  of  plowing  and  cultivating 
hillsides  to  prevent  washing. 

3.  Show  how  to  mix  a  commercial  fertilizer  adapted  to 
your  region. 

4.  Demonstrate  the  use  of  a  subsoil  plow. 

5.  Show  two  methods  of  combating  ravages  of  cotton 
boll  weevil. 

6.  At  some  farm  home  demonstrate  how  to  dip  cattle 
for  fever  tick.     Also  other  methods  of  eradicating  them. 

6.  Chib  Projects 
Boys'  agricultural  clubs  are  being  organized  in  all  the 
states  of  the  South  in  connection  with  the  agricultural  agent 
and  the  schools  for  the  purpose  of  demonstrating  the  best 
practises  in  agriculture.  Girls'  home  economics  clubs,  gar- 
den and  canning  clubs  are  also  being  organized  to  encour- 
age a  wider  use  of  the  home  garden  and  secure  a  larger 
supply  of  vegetables  for  the  daily  diet.  Every  school  should 
if  possible  organize  and  promote  one  or  more  such  clubs. 
Consult  the  state  college  of  agriculture  and  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  with  reference  to  clubs 
suitable  for  your  school,  and  send  for  the  system  of  follow- 
up  instruction  to  be  had  for  the  asking. 


CHAPTER  III 
AGRICULTURE  IN  WESTERN  STATES 

1.     Western  Farming  Conditions 

AN  almost  infinite  variety  of  climatic  conditions  abounds 
in  the  western  states.  From  the  Canadian  line  on 
the  north  to  the  Mexican  boundary  on  the  south  are  to  be 
found  nearly  every  range  of  plant  life  from  sub-arctic  to 
sub-tropical.  Here  also  exist  many  types  of  soils  from  the 
thin,  gravelly  or  volcanic  ash  covering  the  mountain  ranges 
to  the  richest  silt  of  river  valleys.  The  rainfall  varies  so 
greatly  that  while  it  is  possible  to  farm  in  many  regions 
under  normal  humid  conditions,  either  irrigation  or  dry- 
farming  methods  must  be  employed  in  other  places  to  se- 
cure and  maintain  sufficient  moisture.  Added  to  these 
conditions  are  great  differences  in  altitude,  so  that  all 
ranges  of  climate  from  arctic  to  warm  temperature  may  be 
found  in  traveling  a  few  miles  from  mountain  slope  to 
valley.  Great  ranges  of  slopes  subjected  to  north  or  south, 
east  or  west  exposures  also  affect  both  climate  and  crop 
conditions. 

Wide  range  of  crops  and  animals. — Almost  every 
crop  known  to  man  will  thrive  in  some  parts  of  the  great 
West.  Here  we  find  the  richest  yields  of  the  cereals,  cotton 
in  California,  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  the  most  abundant 
forage  crops,  potatoes,  sugar  beets,  sorghum,  vegetables,  and 
a  wider  variety  of  fruits  than  is  grown  in  any  other  coun- 
try in  the  world. 

Farm  animals  thrive  throughout  the  West  and  on  the 
great  plains  in  no  less  variety.     This  region  was  the  orig- 

41 


42  AGRICULTURE 

inal  home  of  great  herds  of  cattle,  horses  and  buffalo, 
which  ranged  the  endless  prairies  and  mountain  slopes. 
For  many  years  the  eastern  markets  secured  a  large  por- 
tion of  their  beef  and  many  of  their  horses  from  range- 
fed  stock.  These  immense  ranges  are  now  being  cut  up 
into  smaller  farms,  put  under  tillage,  and  farm  stock  kept 
under  more  domestic  conditions. 

Soil  management  in  the  West. — So  great  is  the  vari- 
ety of  climate,  soil  and  moisture  in  the  West  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  treat  all  the  conditions  fully  in  any  one  text. 
Only  the  more  general  and  fundamental  principles  can  be 
stated.  The  local  conditions  will  require  study  for  each 
particular  crop  and  region. 

For  convenience  in  the  study  of  western  agriculture  we 
may  divide  farm  practise  into  three  classes :  ( 1 )  farming 
under  humid  conditions,  (2)  under  irrigation,  and  (3) 
under  dry-farming  conditions.  Farm  practise  under  hu- 
mid conditions  in  the  West  should  not  differ  sufficiently  in 
method  from  good  farm  practise  elsewhere  to  require 
separate  treatment.  Farming  under  arid  or  semi-arid 
conditions,  however,  requires  special  methods  and  very 
careful  management.  This  phase  of  agriculture  is  so 
important  in  the  West  that  the  present  chapter  will  be  given 
principally  to  its  discussion.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of 
acres  are  now  being  farmed  and  managed  as  dry-farming 
land,  while  millions  of  acres  are  available  for  similar  pur- 
poses just  as  soon  as  good  farming  methods  are  employed, 
suitable  crops  adapted,  and  good  business  methods  devised 
and  applied  to  the  new  conditions.  Every  student  will  do 
well  to  consider  entering  some  club  project,  developing  a 
home  garden  or  growing  a  field  crop  of  one  or  more  acres, 
to  earn  money  with  which  to  buy  some  of  this  low-priced 
semi-arid  land  of  the  West.     By  starting  early  in  life  one 


IN  WESTERN  STATES 


43 


"Round-up"  from  arid  jiiid  .seiiii-arid  lands  of  New  Mexico. 


Horse  power  in  the  wheat-fields  of  the  Northwest. 


44  AGRICULTURE 

can  easily  hold  a  clear  title  to  a  farm  by  the  time  one  is  of 
age  and  have  it  well  improved  before  middle  age. 

2.     Dry-Farming 

By  dry- farming  is  meant  the  management  and  carrying 
on  of  agriculture,  such  as  the  production  of  field  crops, 
vegetables  and  fruit,  and  the  raising  of  stock,  in  regions 
where  the  rainfall  is  not  sufficiently  heavy  for  successful 
plant  growth  and  crop  production  under  the  common  meth- 
ods of  farming — especially  the  careless  methods  followed 
in  some  sections  of  our  country  where  rainfall  and  soil 
conditions  are  more  encouraging  for  profitable  crop  pro- 
duction. 

The  use  of  terms. — Territory  that  has  an  annual 
rainfall  of  above  30  inches  is  called  humid  and  will  do  well 
under  ordinary  agricultural  practises.  Regions  that  receive 
less  than  10  inches  of  rainfall  annually  are  called  arid,  and 
can  not  be  successfully  farmed  by  the  methods  now  known 
without  irrigation.  Regions  that  receive  from  10  to  20 
inches  annually  are  called  semi-arid,  and  those  that  receive 
from  20  to  30  inches,  sub-humid.  By  the  best  methods  now 
known  to  dry-farming  practise,  most  semi-arid  and  sub- 
humid  land  may  be  successfully  and  profitably  farmed. 
Some  of  the  common  methods  will  not  serve  where  the  an- 
nual rainfall  is  less  than  30  inches. 

A  surprisingly  large  proportion  of  the  land  surface  of 
the  earth  is  either  arid,  semi-arid,  or  sub-humid.  The  fol- 
lowing table  gives  the  proportions  of  the  earth's  surface  re- 
ceiving varying  amounts  of  precipitation:  (Widtsoe,  Dry 
Farming.) 

Annual  Precipitation  Earth's  Surface 

Under  10  inches 25  per  cent. 

From  10  to  20  inches 30  per  cent. 


IN  WESTERN  STATES  45 

From  20  to  40  inches 20     per  cent. 

From  40  to  60  per  cent 11      per  cent. 

From  60  to  80  inches 9      per  cent. 

From  80  to   120  inches 4      per  cent. 

From  120  to  160  inches 0.5  per  cent. 

Above  160  inches 0.5  per  cent. 


100.0  per  cent. 

It  is  seen  from  this  table  that  the  tillable  portion  of 
two-thirds  of  the  land  surface  of  the  earth  receives  less 
than  30  inches  of  precipitation  annually,  and  must  therefore 
be  reclaimed  by  the  best  known  dry-farming  practise  if  at 
all.     What  a  gigantic  problem  for  scientific  agriculture! 

Dry-farm  areas  of  the  United  States. — Almost  half 
of  the  area  of  the  United  States  receives  less  than  30 
inches  of  rainfall  annually,  and  more  than  three-fifths  re- 
ceive less  than  20  inches.  All  of  this  great  region  is 
therefore  dependent  on  either  dry-farming  or  irrigation  for 
its  agricultural  success. 

Eighteen  states,  most  of  them  of  large  area,  comprise 
this  territory.  For  convenience  in  study  they  may  be 
classed  in  groups  as  follows : 

Arid  to  semi-arid  group:  Arizona,  California,  Colora- 
do, Idaho,  Nevada,  Utah,  Wyoming,  and  part  of  New 
Mexico. 

Semi-arid  to  sub-humid  group:  Montana,  western  part 
of  Nebraska,  New  Mexico,  North  Dakota,  Oregon  and 
Washington. 

Sub-humid  to  humid  group :  Western  half  of  Nebraska, 
and  sections  of  Minnesota,  Oklahoma,  Texas  and  Kansas. 

Note:  Send  to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Washington,  D.  C,  and  ask  for  Farmers'  Bulle- 
tin  entitled   "The   Effects   of   Cultural   Methods   of    Crop 


46  AGRICULTURE 

Production  in  the  Great  Plains"  written  by  E.  C.  Chilcott, 
Agriculturist  in  Charge  of  Dry  Land  Agriculture,  J. 
S.  Cole,  Assistant,  and  W.  W.  Burr,  Assistant.  This  bul- 
letin contains  the  results  of  a  number  of  years'  experiment- 
ing in  cultural  methods  at  several  of  the  dry-land  farming 
stations. 

3.     Dry-Farming  Practise 

The  careless  and  shiftless  methods  employed  in  some 
humid  regions  will  not  return  a  profit  to  the  operator  from 
his  dry-farm.  The  adoption  of  the  best  known  methods  of 
managing  the  soil,  planting,  cultivating  and  determining  the 
crops  to  be  produced  are  required.  The  dry-farmer  should 
be  thoroughly  trained  if  he  would  succeed. 

Principles  involved. — The  success  of  dry-farming  de- 
pends on  the  use  of  methods  that  will  eliminate  unnecessary 
and  unprofitable  labor,  store  moisture  in  the  soil,  keep  it 
there  until  needed  by  the  growing  crops,  and  then  release  it 
to  the  roots  of  the  plants.  It  is  evident  first  of  all  that  the 
soil  must  be  of  such  nature  as  will  allow  it  to  retain  water. 
Hence  a  gravelly  soil  is  not  well  adapted  to  dry-farming, 
while  a  clay  loam  is.  The  cultivation  must  be  directed 
chiefly  toward  preventing  evaporation.  The  crops  to  be 
grown  must  be  selected  (1)  for  their  adaptability  to  dry- 
farming  conditions  and  (2)  for  their  economy  in  the  use 
of  water  during  the  growing  period. 

Plowing. — Dry-farm  land,  many  maintain,  should  as  a 
rule  be  plowed  early  in  the  fall,  and  to  a  depth  of  8  to  10 
inches.  In  case  the  subsoil  is  lacking  in  plant  food  the 
ground  should  be  plowed  more  shallow  at  first,  then  a 
little  deeper  each  year  until  a  depth  suitable  to  the  locality 
is  reached.  Some  consider  fall  plowing  to  be  important  as 
it  allows  the  soil  more  readily  to  take  in  the  winter  moisture 
and  permits  winter  weathering,  which  improves  the  physical 


IN  WESTERN  STATES 


C 


^    OP  THE  1 

^COLLEGE  or        ) 


condition  of  the  soil.  There  is,  also,  considerable  evidence 
as  to  the  necessity  of  deep  plowing  when  we  consult  the 
results  of  continued  experiments  of  the  experiment  stations 
of  the  Great  Plains. 

Providing  the  dust  mulch. — Dry-farming  requires, 
on  the  whole,  more  thorough  and  frequent  cultivation  than 
humid  farming,  Land  that  is  soon  to  be  planted  to  crops 
should  be  disked  and  harrowed  immediately  after  the  plow. 
This  tends  to  produce  a  loose  soil  mulch  and  will  do  much 
to  prevent  evaporation.  Fall  plowed  land  that  is  to  lie  fal- 
low through  the  winter  should  be  left  in  a  rough  condition 
and  without  cultivation,  as  this  will  favor  the  taking  in  of 
winter  rains  or  snow.  If  the  winters  are  dry  the  ground 
should  be  well  pulverized  after  the  plowing.  Disking 
should  be  started  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible  and  fol- 
lowed by  harrowing. 

Crop  cultivation. — As  soon  as  the  crops  are  planted 
harrowing  should  be  started,  and  continued  as  long  as  pos- 
sible without  injuring  the  crop.  Every  rain  that  falls  is 
so  much  treasure  added  to  the  soil.  After  each  rain  there- 
fore, the  ground  should  be  cultivated  as  soon  as  possible 
in  order  to  break  the  crust,  establish  a  new  mulch  and  so 
prevent  evaporation.  All  crops  should  be  cultivated  as  far 
into  the  season  as  possible.  Weeds  must  be  kept  down  at 
any  cost,  for  they  both  hinder  the  growth  of  the  crop  and 
rob  the  soil  of  water  which  belongs  to  the  cultivated  plants. 

As  soon  as  the  crop  is  removed  the  ground  should  be 
plowed,  disked  and  harrowed.  The  farmer  who  is  not 
willing  to  follow  out  the  intensive  tillage  and  careful  man- 
agement required  for  dry-farming  conditions  ought  not  to 
engage  in  this  type  of  agriculture. 

Summer  fallowing. — In  a  large  part  of  the  semi-arid 
region  it  is  found  necessary  to  store  up  the  moisture  of  two 
seasons  in  order  to  produce  a  single  crop  successfully.   This 


48 


AGRICULTURE 


IN  WESTERN  STATES  49 

is  accomplished  by  what  is  known  as  summer  fallozving. 
The  process  consists  of  plowing  the  ground  as  if  for 
immediate  planting,  and  then,  keeping  it  well  cultivated 
without  a  crop  during  the  season,  thus  conserving  most  of 
the  moisture  that  falls. 

Fallowing  is  usually  practised  every  second  year  in  re- 
gions having  less  than  fifteen  inches  of  rainfall.  Where 
the  rainfall  is  from  fifteen  to  twenty  inches  the  fallowing 
may  be  limited  to  every  third  or  even  every  fourth  year. 
The  fallowed  soil  should  be  kept  wholly  free  from  weeds 
as  they  use  up  moisture,  encourage  insects,  and  make  the 
ground  foul.  In  various  regions  of  the  Great  Plains  in- 
creased frequency  of  cultivation  has  been  found  to  take 
in  some  degree  the  place  of  fallowing.  Wherever  this 
system  can  be  successfully  used  it  should,  of  course,  be 
adopted,  as  it  saves  the  loss  from  idle  land  during  the  fal- 
lowing period.  Fallow  fields  also  often  lose  fertility  through 
the  blowing  of  loose  soil  in  high  winds. 

4.     Management  of  the  Dry-Farm 

Dry-farm  crops. — A  great  degree  of  the  success  of 
dry-farming  depends  on  the  selection  of  crops  that  are 
capable  of  growing  with  a  minimum  supply  of  moisture. 
While  many  of  the  crops  grown  under  humid  conditions 
can  be  successfully  produced  by  dry-farming  methods,  yet 
certain  varieties  are  better  adapted  to  resist  drought  than 
others  and  should  therefore  be  used. 

A  second  factor  to  be  taken  into  account  is  that  plants 
have  the  power  of  adapting  themselves  to  the  conditions 
under  which  they  grow.  Varieties  that  have  become  accus- 
tomed to  dry-farming  regions  and  methods  of  cultivation 
should  be  selected.  This  also  suggests  that  home  grown 
seed  should  generally  be  used  rather  than  seed  brought 
from  humid  territory. 


50 


AGRICULTURE 


IN  WESTERN  STATES  51 

Wheat  as  a  dry-farm  crop. — Wheat  is  at  present  the 
most  important  dry-farm  crop,  and  will  probably  retain 
this  preeminence.  Experimentation  is  still  going  on  to  de- 
termine the  best  varieties  for  dry-farming  conditions 
Among  the  hard  spring  wheats,  Common  or  Durum  is  at 
present  regarded  the  best,  while  among  the  winter  wheats 
the  semi-hard  and  the  soft  wheats  take  the  lead. 

Other  grains. — Oats,  especially  such  varieties  as 
Sixty-day,  Kherson,  Burt  and  Szvedish  Select,  are  a  profit- 
able dry-farm  crop.  Barley,  rye  and  emmer  are  also  suc- 
cessful cereals  for  dry-farming  regions.  Corn  can  be 
profitably  grown  under  semi-arid  conditions  if  proper 
varieties  are  selected,  as  can  the  sorghums,  feterita  and  mil- 
let. 

Alfalfa  and  other  legumes. — On  account  of  its  deep 
rooting  system  alfalfa  can  be  made  a  successful  forage  crop 
where  the  rainfall  is  as  much  as  twelve  to  fifteen  inches. 
Field"*  peas,  beans  and  other  legumes  are  also  adapted  to 
dry-farming. 

Potatoes. — Potatoes  are  one  of  the  most  promising 
of  dry-farming  crops.  They  can  be  profitably  raised  with 
a  rainfall  of  fifteen  inches.  The  following  varieties  have 
been  recommended  as  dry-farm^  varieties :  Ohio,  Mammoth, 
Pearl,  Rural  Nezu  Yorker  and  Burbank. 

Conserving  soil  fertility. — Dry-farming  areas  possess 
soil  of  unusual  fertility.  Nor  does  the  fertility  exhaust  as 
fast  as  under  humid  conditions.  Dry-farms  in  many  sec- 
tions that  have  been  continuously  cropped  for  many  years 
show  but  little  loss  of  fertility  or  decrease  in  the  yield  of 
crops.  Yet  this  fertility  will  finally  be  exhausted  if  care 
is  not  used  to  maintain  it. 

Intelligent  dry-farming  will  therefore  plan  from  the 
first  to  conserve  fertility.  The  farm  should  be  stocked  and 
the   manure   returned   to   the   soil.     Straw   left   from    the 


52  AGRICULTURE 

header,  and  stubble,  should  be  plowed  under.  Legumes 
should  be  grown  to  aid  in  maintaining  the  supply  of  nitro- 
gen. A  careful  system  of  rotation  of  crop^  should  be 
adopted  and  carefully  followed. 

Dry-farm  machinery. — Dry-farming  usually  employs 
a  large  acreage  of  tilled  land.  It  also  demands  frequent 
and  thorough  cultivation.  These  facts  suggest  the  need 
of  plenty  of  good  machinery,  adapted  to  the  work  re- 
quired. Plowing  is  often  done  by  the  gang-plow  drawn  by  a 
steam  or  gasoline  tractor.  Grain  is  cut  by  a  combination 
header  and  thrasher.  Large  disks,  harrows  and  drills  are 
used.  The  intelligent  dry-farmer  will  not  so  much  seek  to 
economize  on  necessary  machinery,  as  to  save  by  giving 
it  the  required  care  for  its  up-keep. 

Water  for  the  home. — The  dry-land  farmer's  home 
should  be  provided  with  an  abundance  of  clean  pure  wa- 
ter. The  barns  and  the  stock  should  have  plenty  of  water, 
and  a  supply  is  needed  for  the  irrigation  of  the  vegetable 
garden,  shade  trees  and  fruit.  The  most  progressive  dry- 
land farmers  provide  a  reservoir  which  is  continually  kept 
full  of  water  pumped  by  a  windmill,  gasoline  engine,  or 
other  power.  If  this  reservoir  is  elevated  it  may  easily  pro- 
vide for  a  running  system  of  water,  thus  supplying  the 
home,  its  kitchen  and  bathroom,  with  some  of  the  modern 
conveniences  not  otherwise  available. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Locate  on  the  map  the  regions  adapted  to  dry- farm- 
ing in  the  United  States.  Estimate  the  amount  of  land  in 
your  state  not  now  under  tillage  that  may  be  profitably 
farmed  by  this  method. 

2.  Work  out  a  practical  system  of  crop  rotation  for 
several  different  regions  where  dry-farming  is  practised. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  all  crops  adapted  to  dry-farming  in 


IN  WESTERN  STATES 


:\rachine  power  at  work  in  the  vast  fields  of  the  West. 


Typical  scene  in  the  Southwest,  showing  sage-brush  in  the 
foreground. 


54  AG^CULTURE 

your   state  and   locate  the   territory   where   each   may  be 
profitably  produced. 

4.  Write  a  description  of  how  some  of  the  important 
dry-farm  crops  are  produced,  from  the  plowing  of  the  land 
to  the  harvesting  and  marketing  of  the  crop. 

5.  Write  a  brief  history  of  dry-farming  in  the  United 
States. 

6.  Give  an  account  of  dry- farming  in  your  own  state ; 
in  Canada ;  in  Mexico ;  in  Brazil ;  in  Russia ;  in  China. 

7.  What  is  the  average  annual  rainfall  for  your  state? 
How  does  this  compare  with  other  states  of  your  region? 
With  the  United  States?  Does  the  rainfall  of  your  state 
come  chiefly  during  the  growing  season,  or  during  the  fall 
and  winter?  What  bearing  has  this  on  the  methods  of 
farming  required  ? 

8.  Make  a  list  of  all  crops,  such  as  cereal,  forage, 
garden  and  orchard,  that  will  thrive  in  your  state.  Compare 
with  crops  available  to  middle  western  or  eastern  states. 
Do  the  same  for  animals. 


5.     Demonstrations  in  Dry-Farming 

1.  Demonstrate  by  use  of  sand,  soil  and  water  what 
is  meant  by  arid,  humid  and  sub-humid  land. 

2.  Show  how  to  make  soil  mulch  for  the  arid  land 
found  in  the  vicinity  of  your  school.  Use  soil  on  table  or 
in  boxes;  if  this  is  impracticable  demonstrate  to  the  class 
in  the  out-of-doors. 

3.  Show  upon  the  map  or  by  the  use  of  the  blackboard 
the  reasons  for  lack  of  rainfall  in  certain  areas  in  your 
section  of  the  state. 

4.  By  the  use  of  boxes  and  various  types  of  soil  make 
demonstrations  on  a  miniature  scale  of  farming  some  one 
crop  such  as  wheat  under  the  three  conditions,  arid,  semi- 
arid  and  humid,  by  the  application  of  rnoisture,  packing, 
cultivation,  stirring  of  the  soil.  Plant  the  same  seed  in  each 
of  the  three  divisions.     You  will  be  able  to  show  the  dif- 


IN  WESTERN  STATES  55 

ference  in  growth  and  appearance  of  your  crop  during  the 
same  period  of  time,  etc. 

6.  Play  Contests 

1.  Soil  sample  contest.  Select  all  of  the  different  sam- 
ples of  soil  found  in  your  dry-land  farming  section. 

2.  Soil  variety  naming  contest. 

3.  Dry-land  farming  essay  writing  contest. 

4.  Geography  study  contests  such  as  the  location  and 
naming  of  arid  sections  and  reclaimed  arid  land. 

7.  Club  Projects 

No  section  of  the  country  is  in  greater  need  of  demon- 
stration club  work  than  is  the  dry-land  farming  section. 
Here  are  needed  the  encouragement,  leadership,  and  direc- 
tion usually  given  in  the  boys'  and  girls'  club  projects. 
The  same  basis  of  award  suggested  for  the  crops  outlined 
in  connection  with  the  other  chapters  can  be  used  in  the 
club  work  in  dry-land  farming.  It  is  possible  that  the 
acreage,  when  the  project  is  in  connection  with  a  forage  or 
cereal  crop,  should  be  twice  as  large  as  is  usually  taken 
with  humid  land.  This  is  in  order  to  make  it  possible  for 
a  greater  net  profit  on  the  investment  for  the  club  member. 


CHAPTER  IV 
FARMING   UNDER   IRRIGATION 

ABOUT  300,000,000  acres  in  the  United  States  of  other- 
wise tillable  land  have  been  unproductive  because  of 
lack  of  moisture.  This  area,  which  is  approximately  as 
large  as  Iowa,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Missouri,  Minnesota, 
Wisconsin  and  Michigan,  comprises  what  is  known  as  the 
arid  and  semi-arid  region  of  the  United  States.  The  soil  in 
most  cases  contains  abundant  plant  food  and  has  been  found 
highly  productive  when  the  necessary  amount  of  moisture 
is  suppHed.  Much  of  the  arid  West  formerly  called  the 
"Great  American  Desert"  can  be  transformed  into  a  veri- 
table garden  spot  by  proper  irrigation  and  management. 

This  territory  extends  from  the  Canadian  boundary  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  includes  large  tracts  of  practically 
all  of  the  states  in  the  West,  such  as  Washington,  ^Montana, 
North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Idaho,  Wyoming,  Utah, 
Colorado,  Oregon,  Nevada,  California,  New  Mexico,  Ari- 
zona, Texas,  Oklahoma,  western  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  as 
well  as  a  part  of  Florida. 

1.     Causes  of  Aridity 

There  are  three  chief  reasons  why  much  of  the 
western  dry  territory  is  deprived  of  normal  rainfall.  The 
£rst  is  that  the  Rocky  Mountains  rob  the  ocean  breezes  of 
their  moistures  before  they  have  reached  the  tillable  lands. 
The  second  is  the  altitude  of  a  great  portion  of  this  terri- 
tory;  millions  of  acres  are  at  an  altitude  which  makes  the 
production  of  rain  impossible.     The  third  is  the  lack  of 

56 


FARMING  UNDER  IRRIGATION  57 

vegetation  and  forests,  which  encourages  the  evaporation 
of  moisture  and  its  loss  after  rains  by  rapid  surface  drain- 
age. 

Seasonal  distribution  of  rainfall. — In  considerable 
portions  of  the  arid  territory  there  is  sufficient  rainfall 
within  a  year's  time  to  produce  crops.  Yet  irrigation  is 
necessary  because  the  distribution  of  the  moisture  is  not 
seasonable,  but  irregular  or  at  the  wrong  time.  In  most 
cases  the  rains  come  during  the  time  of  the  year  when  the 
crops  are  not  in  the  ground.  In  some  parts  of  Florida 
wh^re  the  annual  rainfall  is  from  60  to  70  inches  it  is  im- 
possible to  grow  a  crop  without  irrigation  because  the  pre- 
cipitation comes  during  the  winter  months. 

Regions  of  late  summer  drooights. — In  the  central 
west  and  eastern  states  there  is  considerable  territory  that 
suffers  more  or  less  during  the  months  of  July  and  Au- 
gust, for  want  of  sufficient  rainfall  to  set  and  mature  the 
grain,  fruit,  or  trucking  crops.  In  a  very  large  number 
of  cases  irrigation  could  be  supplied  without  great  expense 
'to  protect  the  farmer,  fruit  grower,  or  truck  gardener 
against  failures  of  crop  and  so  prove  highly  profitable. 

Even  in  the  fruit  sections  of  the  Allegheny  and  Blue 
Ridge  ^Mountains  where  irrigation  has  not  been  seriously 
considered  many  farmers  would  profit  greatly  by  planning 
systems  of  irrigation  and  by  so  doing  extend  the  growing 
season.  Where  now  they  are  producing  but  one  crop  in 
trucking,  with  the  aid  of  irrigation  and  a  carefully  planned 
system  of  rotation,  it  would  be  possible  to  produce  two  and 
in  some  cases  three  crops.  Much  of  this  land  could  be  fed 
from  the  mountain  streams  and  rivers  with  but  little  cost. 

2.     Reclamation  of  Arid  and  Semi-arid  Land 

Reclaimed  land. — By  reclaimed  land  we  mean  land 
that  otherwise  would  be  unproductive  and  of  little  or  no 


58 


AGRICULTURE 


'Checking  back"  to  avoid  waste  ot  irrigation  water.  California. 


r 

^.^ 

u 

1^- 

^ 

te 

..^!^^mmmmmm_.^^~S 

'*#3^^*^^SL« 

■1 
1 

W 

-:j^^' 

Regulating  gates  and  inverted  siphon. 
souri  River,  Montana. 


Chestnut  Valley,  Mis- 


FARMING  UNDER  IRRIGATION  59 

Talue  because  of  its  arid  or  semi-arid  condition.  This  land 
is  reclaimed  by  some  system  of  irrigation  making  it  possi- 
ble for  the  farmer  to  supply  water  in  sufficient  quantities 
and  at  the  proper  time.  The  United  States  government, 
through  its  reclamation  service,  has  reclaimed  millions  of 
acres  of  land  in  the  West  which  formerly  were  a  bleak  des- 
ert, or  at  best  covered  with  sage-brush,  mesquit  and  cacti, 
and  populated  largely  by  prairie  dogs  and  rattlesnakes.  In 
this  region  are  now  beautiful  and  thriving  orchards, 
grain  and  alfalfa  fields,  and  a  great  variety  of  truck  crops. 
Some  of  the  most  beautiful  farming  sections  of  the  West 
can  be  found  on  these  reclaimed  lands  and  on  what  is 
known  as  territory  under  irrigation.  Millions  of  dollars 
are  being  spent  annually,  not  only  by  the  federal  govern- 
ment, but  also  by  the  states  and  by  private  reclamation 
companies  to  reclaim  this  land. 

Practise  of  irrigation  not  new. — While  irrigation  has 
only  recently  been  developed  into  an  important  agricul- 
tural science  and  received  the  attention  of  statesmen  and 
men  of  affairs,  it  is  by  no  means  a  modern  invention.  It 
was  very  commonly  practised  in  Egypt,  India,  Spain,  Mex- 
ico and  Peru  thousands  of  years  ago.  When  the  Span- 
iards first  came  to  America  they  found  irrigation  fairly 
well  developed  in  both  Mexico  and  Peru.  The  Indians 
were  the  first  to  irrigate  land  in  the  United  States.  Even 
at  the  present  time  can  be  found  a  number  of  Indian  tribes 
practising  the  same  arts  of  irrigation  followed  by  their  fore- 
fathers hundreds  of  years  ago.  In  many  of  the  western 
arid  plains  from  which  the  Indians  have  long  since  been 
driven  there  are  still  remaining  signs  of  their  irrigation 
systems.  The  first  white  people  In  America  to  develop  and 
organize  definite  systems  of  irrigation  were  the  Mormons, 
who  located  in  the  Salt  River  Valley  of  Utah. 


60  AGRICULTURE 

Sources  of  water  supply. — Water  for  irrigation  pur- 
poses is  secured  from  a  variety  of  sources,  such  as  artesian 
wells,  canals,  reservoirs,  streams,  lakes,  and  sometimes 
from  the  regular  wells  from  which  the  water  is  pumped 
by  windmills,  electricity,  steam  or  other  power. 

Topics  for  InvestiGxVTion 

1.  What  is  the  acreage  of  irrigated  land  in  your 
state?  What  are  the  possibilities  for  profitable  extension 
of  irrigation  to  include  additional  territory? 

2.  If  there  is  aridity  in  your  region  what  is  the  cause — 
location  of  mountain  ranges,  elevation,  direction  of  prevail- 
ing winds,  and  other  unfavorable  seasonal  distribution  or 
rainfall  ? 

3.  Make  a  study  from  state  and  federal  sources  of  the 
reclamation  projects  of  your  state,  and  write  an  account  of 
the  same,  giving  area  aflfected,  cost,  and  methods  pursued  as 
to  supply  and  distribution  of  water. 

3.     Systems  of  Irrigation 

There  are  now  in  use  in  various  sections  of  the  coun- 
try three  different  systems  of  irrigation.  These  are  known 
as  the  surface,  subsurface  and  overhead  systems. 

Surface  irrigation. — This  is  the  system  in  most  com- 
mon use,  not  because  it  is  always  the  most  satisfactory  and 
efficient,  but  because  it  can  be  installed  with  the  least  labor 
and  expense.  Where  water  is  scarce,  or  the  rental  is  high, 
surface  irrigation  is  wasteful,  since  a  large  amount  of  wa- 
ter is  lost  by  evaporation  and  by  running  off  into  fields, 
lowlands  or  streams  where  it  is  not  needed.  And  in  irri- 
gation territory  water  has  a  direct  money  value  and  should 
be  handled  as  economically  as  possible. 

Application  of  water  in  surface  irrigation. — The 
method  to  be  followed  in  surface  irrigation  depends  on  the 
source  of  water  supply,  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil, 


FARMING  UNDER  IRRIGATION  61 


:S^ 


Flooding  from  cement   ditchc: 


Method  of  making  small  irrigation   ditches. 


62  AGRICULTURE 

the  topography  of  the  field,  and  the  kind  of  farming  to 
be  undertaken.  Two  principal  methods  of  applying  the 
water  are  (1)  by  flooding,  and  (2)  by  the  use  of  furrou}- 
ing,  or  corrugation,  of  the  field. 

When  flooding  is  used,  the  water  is  spread  from  the 
source  of  supply  over  the  entire  field  at  regular  or  neces- 
sary intervals.  It  seeps  into  the  soil  and  around  the  root 
systems  of  the  plants  from  every  point  of  the  surface. 
When  furrowing  is  employed  the  water  is  turned  into  the 
furrows  from  the  head  lateral  ditches.  From  the  furrows 
it  seeps  through  the  soil  to  the  roots  of  the  plants.  It  is 
evident  that  for  the  successful  use  of  either  of  these  meth- 
ods the  fields  must  be  relatively  level  and  only  a  trifle  slop- 
ing. 

Saving  the  water. — The  only  methods  known  to  pre- 
vent lavish  waste  of  water  through  surface  irrigation  are 
(1)  by  economy  in  the  application  of  water,  and  (2)  by 
keeping  a  light  surface  mulch  and  by  frequent  and  shallow 
cultivation.  This  system  will  produce  a  greater  amount  of 
plant  products  at  less  water  cost.  For  most  of  the  fruit, 
trucking  and  grain  crops  the  furrow,  or  corrugation,  method 
is  conceded  to  be  more  practical  and  economical  than  flood- 
ing. 

Sub-surface  irrigation. — Under  favorable  conditions 
sub-surface  irrigation  proves  most  satisfactory,  chiefly  be- 
cause there  is  little  or  no  waste  of  water,  and  because  the 
supply  can  be  more  easily  controlled. 

In  this  system  the  water  is  applied  by  means  of  pipes 
placed  beneath  the  surface.  The  pipes  are  full  of  small 
holes  through  which  the  water  enters  the  soil.  A  serious 
objection  to  this  method  is  that  clay  soil  and  small  plant 
roots  are  likely  to  clog  up  the  holes.  Hence  the  sub-surface 
pipes  are  adapted  only  to  light  open  soils.  Another  sub- 
surface method  is  by  a  system  of  tile  or  drainage  pipes  from 


FARMING  UNDER  IRRIGATION 


63 


64  AGRICULTURE 

which  the  water  is  forced  up  through  perpendicular  pipe 
outlets  or  holes. 

A  third  method  of  sub-surface  watering  is  employed 
where  the  land  has  a  natural  slope  and  a  clay  subsoil  of 
hardpan.  The  water  is  applied  by  the  head  ditch  and  al- 
lowed to  seep  down  through  the  soil  to  the  hardpan.  It 
then  rises  to  the  surface  by  soil  capillarity,  where  it  is  avail- 
able for  the  use  of  the  plants.  This  method  is  practical 
only  in  a  few  localities  where  the  source  of  water  supply 
and  the  physical  conditions  of  the  field  are  adapted  to  its 
use. 

Overhead  irrigation. — Overhead  irrigation  is  accom- 
plished by  a  system  of  overhead  piping  so  placed  that  wa- 
ter can  be  appHed  to  an  entire  field  or  garden  at  one  time. 
The  pipes,  are  perforated  with  many  small  holes  through 
which  are  forced  fine  streams  or  a  spray  of  water.  This 
method  is  very  effective,  but  its  expense  limits  its  useful- 
ness principally  to  gardening  and  trucking.  Not  only  is 
the  cost  prohibitive  for  large  fields,  but  the  piping  is  in  the 
way  for  cultivation  when  using  horses  and  machinery. 

Determining  the  method  of  irrigation. — What  method 
of  irrigation  is  best  must  be  decided  by  certain  important 
factors.  Among  these  are  (1)  the  available  water  sup- 
ply, and  its  expense,  (2)  the  location  and  level  of  the  water 
table,  (3)  the  nature  of  the  soil,  (4)  the  variety  of  crops 
to  be  irrigated,  (5)  the  size  of  the  field.  Irrigating  small 
grain,  forage  crops,  alfalfa,  etc.,  is  usually  best  accom- 
pHshed  by  the  surface  corrugated  methods,  though  flood- 
ing may  prove  satisfactory  if  the  land  is  well  drained. 
Orchard  and  trucking  crops  are  most  economically  served 
by  the  furrow  method. 


FARMING  UNDER  IRRIGATION 


65 


trm 


66  AGRICULTURE 

4.     Crop  Management  under  Irrigation 

The  application  of  water.^Water  is  usually  applied 
as  needed  from  seed  time  to  harvest  in  from  two  to  six 
applications.     A  few  irrigations  from:  June  to  September 


Shoshone  project,  Wyoming.     Wheat  on  the  farm  of  James 
Walsh.  ^ 

as  a  rule  insure  better  results  than  many.  Too  much  water 
is  the  cause  of  many  irrigation  difficulties  and  is  quite  as 
harmful  to  the  crops  as  not  enough.  The  time  of  appli- 
cation is  more  important  than  the  quantity  of  water  applied. 
Care  of  the  crop. — The  general  management  of  crops 


FARMING  UNDER  IRRIGATION  67 

under  irrigation,  as  to  planting,  tillage  and  harvesting,  is 
very  little  different  from  the  management  of  the  same 
crops  under  humid  conditions,  except  in  three  particulars. 
First,  all  work  must  protect  the  irrigation  system,  such  as 
ditches,  furrows  and  piping,  being  careful  not  to  damage 
them  in  cultivating  the  crop.  Second,  the  tillage  must  be 
performed  with  a  definite  view  to  conserving  the  moisture 
in  all  possible  ways.  Third,  the  management  of  the  farm 
must  be  more  carefully  planned  as  the  cost  of  production  is 
greater  on  irrigated  land  than  on  humid  land,  and  a  mate- 
rial increase  of  production  per  acre  must  result  if  a  sub- 
stantial profit  is  to  be  assured. 

Rotation. — The  desire  for  immediate  cash  returns 
makes  the  tendency  to  single  cropping  as  pronounced  on 
irrigated  projects  as  in  the  central  states  or  the  cotton  ter- 
ritory. Yet  the  fact  that  the  land  is  new  makes  diversi- 
fication and  a  carefully  planned  system  of  rotation  even 
more  desirable  than  in  most  other  regions.  For  not  a 
little  of  the  new  land  which  is  being  brought  under  irriga- 
tion is  almost  entirely  devoid  of  organic  matter.  This  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  for  many  years  it  has  been  entirely 
without  vegetation.  For  this  reason  and  for  the  purpose  of 
keeping  up  the  natural  fertility  and  the  enriching  of  the 
soil,  it  is  important  to  plan  a  practical  system  of  crop  rota- 
tion from  the  start. 

Every  irrigation  farmer  should  keep  in  close  touch  with 
the  state  college  of  agriculture  and  state  experiment  sta- 
tion of  his  state  by  visiting  the  institution  and  reading  its 
bulletins.  In  this  way  he  can  secure  guidance  and  infor- 
mation from  experts  who  have  been  provided  with  both 
time  and  money  to  investigate  and  experiment  in  order  to 
discover  the  safest  and  best  methods  for  the  farmer. 


68  AGRICULTURE 

5.    Dangers  from   Over-irrigation 

The  dangers  from  over-irrigation  need  to  be  guarded 
against  as  carefully  as  those  of  shortage  of  moisture.  The 
Utah  Agricultural  College  and  the  Utah  Conservation  Com- 
mission have  jointly  issued  the  following  suggestions  to  irri- 
gation farmers: 

OVER  IRRIGATION  IS  A  MENACE  TO  UTAH, 
BECAUSE 

1.  Smaller  crop  yields  are  obtained  for  each  unit  of 
water  used. 

2.  More  plant  food  is  taken  up  by  the  plant  for  each 
pound  of  crop. 

3.  The  quality  of  the  crops  is  greatly  reduced. 

4.  Straw  is  produced  at  the  expense  of  grain. 

5.  Plant  food  is  washed  out  of  the  soil. 

6.  Lower-lying  lands  become  water-logged. 

7.  Other  dry  lands  are  cheated  of  irrigation  water. 

8.  The  extension  of  the  irrigated  area  is  hindered. 

9.  A  wholesome  community  spirit  is  lowered  wherever 
water  is  wastefuUy  used. 

The  same  authorities  have  set  forth  the  following  ir- 
rigation rules,  which  are  worth  the  attention  of  all  who 
are  interested  in  irrigation. 

L  Store  the  rainfall  in  the  soil. — Deep  thorough 
plowing  enables  the  soil  to  absorb  and  retain  most  of  the 
rain  and  snow  water.  The  more  rainfall  is  stored  in  the 
soil  the  less  irrigation  water  will  be  needed. 

2.  Use  the  spring  and  fall  water. — Where  the  win- 
ters are  dry,  fall  irrigation  or  early  spring  irrigation  will 
reduce  the  irrigation  water  needed  during  the  growing 
season. 


FARMING  UNDER  IRRIGATION  69 

3.  Cultivate  frequently  and  thoroughly. — Water  is 
easily  lost  from  soils  by  evaporation.  The  soil  should  be 
thoroughly  cultivated  early  in  the  spring,  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible after  irrigation,  and  usually  once  or  more  between  ir- 
rigations. Thorough  cultivation  will  reduce  the  water 
needed  in  irrigation. 

4.  Keep  the  soil  fertile. — The  more  fertile  a  soil  is, 
the  less  water  is  needed  to  produce  a  pound  or  ton  of  the 
crop.  Plow  deeply,  cultivate  thoroughly,  use  barnyard 
manure,  and  less  irrigation  water  will  be  needed. 

5.  Plant  in  well-moistened  soil. — Well-moistened  soil 
at  planting  time  permits  better  root  development,  and  de- 
lays the  time  of  the  first  irrigation,  and  thus  saves  irriga- 
tion water  during  the  summer.  If  rains  and  snow  do  not 
moisten  soils  sufficiently  for  planting,  irrigate  in  fall,  or 
in  early  spring,  before  planting. 

6.  Don't  irrigate  too  early. — By  postpoining  as  long 
as  possible  the  first  irrigation  after  planting,  a  better  root 
development  is  secured  and  less  irrigation  water  is  needed 
to  produce  the  crop. 

7.  Irrigate  by  the  correct  method. — Where  w^ater  is 
plentiful,  the  flooding  method  may  be  used;  where  water 
is  scarce,  the  furrow  method  only  should  be  employed. 
Lead  the  waste  water  from  the  furrows  to  other  fields. 

8.  Irrigate  at  the  proper  time. — Withhold  water  until 
the  crop  is  in  real  need.  When  irrigating,  apply  enough 
water  to  supply  the  crop  for  at  least  ten  days.  Irrigate 
thoroughly,  when  potatoes  are  in  bloom;  corn  in  tassel 
or  silk;  lucerne  just  beginning  to  bud,  and  grains  forming 
seed. 

9.  Use  water  in  moderation. — The  acre  yield  of  a 
crop  increases  as  more  water  is  used,  up  to  a  certain  limit, 
beyond  which  more  water  causes  a  decrease  in  the  yield. 

10.  Spread  the  water  over  larger  areas. — The  yield 


70  AGRICULTURE 

of  crop  per  unit  of  water  always  becomes  smaller  as  more 
water  is  added.  The  less  water  is  used  in  irrigation,  the 
more  crop  is  obtained  for  the  water  used.  In  Utah,  land 
is  plentiful,  water  is  scarce;  it  is  more  important  to  get  a 
large  crop  for  each  acre-foot  of  water  than  for  each  acre 
of  land, 

11.  Kill  the  weeds. — Weeds  use  up  as  much  water 
as  do  many  profitable  crops.  It  costs  usually  2,000  pounds 
of  water  to  produce  one  pound  of  weeds.  Killing  the 
weeds  will  leave  more  water  for  our  crops. 

12.  Repair  the  leaky  ditches. — Tremendous  quantities 
of  water  seep  from  most  of  our  canals  and  ditches.  Stop 
the  leaky  places!  It  will  often  pay  to  cement  the  whole 
canal. 

13.  Measure  the  water. — Land  is  measured  carefully, 
but  water,  more  valuable  than  land,  is  seldom  measured. 
Great  progress  will  be  made  by  Utah  as  soon  as  farmers 
faithfully  measure  and  keep  an  account  of  the  water  used 
on  the  land.  This  is  one  of  Utah's  greatest  irrigation 
needs.  The  Cippoletti  Weir  may  be  used  by  any  farmer 
for  the  measurement  of  water. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  What  systems  of  irrigation  are  used  in  your  state? 
Is  the  one  most  commonly  used  the  best?  If  not,  suggest 
any  changes  that  would  bring  better  returns. 

2.  What  method  is  used  for  securing  water  and  bring- 
ing it  to  the  state  and  local  projects?  Make  a  drawing 
showing  the  system  of  distribution  from  the  water  source. 

3.  How  are  the  water  rights  determined?  By  state 
laws?  By  federal  laws?  By  private  companies?  How 
are  water  rentals  determined?  Name  and  explain  the  prin- 
cipal irrigation  acts,  both  state  and  national.  Write  to  your 
congressmen  and  state  legislators   for  copies  of  the  laws. 

4.  Locate  on  the  map  the  leading  reclamation  projects 
of  the  western  states.    Name  them.    How  do  they  differ  as 


FARMING  UNDER  IRRIGATION  71 

to  source  of  water  supply,  and  laws  creating  and  govern- 
ing them?  What  restrictions  and  limitations  are  placed 
on  land  ownership  on  the  government  projects? 

5.  Name  and  explain  the  distinctive  irrigation  tools 
and  machinery  in  use  not  common  to  the  other  types  of 
farming.  Bring  pictures  of  different  kinds  not  commonly 
known  in  your  section.  Explain  how  they  are  used  and 
whether  they  are  practical  for  your  locality. 

6.  Name  and  explain  the  different  kinds  of  gates,  locks 
and  dams  used  in  irrigation  work.  What  kind  of  power 
have  you  seen  in  use  for  irrigation  purposes?  What  im- 
portant part  does  gravity  take  in  all  irrigation  plans? 

7.  Where  in  your  community  can  other  irrigation  proj- 
ects be  profitably  located?  Show  source  of  water  supply, 
and  recommend  the  method  of  irrigation  most  economical 
and  efficient. 

8.  What  new  legislation  by  both  state  and  nation  would 
you  recommend  for  the  increased  efficiency  of  present  proj- 
ects and  for  the  reclamation  of  other  tillable  lands  in  the 
county  and  state  ? 

6.     Irrigation  Demonstrations 

1.  Demonstrate  how  to  make  a  surface  corrugation  to 
be  used  in  irrigating  small  grains,  forage  crops  or  alfalfa. 

2.  Show  three  methods  of  furrowing  an  orchard. 
Demonstrate  by  drawing  how  to  make  a  furrow  irrigation 
system  showing  the  location  of  water  reservoir,  main  ditch, 
laterals  and  furrows. 

3.  Demonstrate  with  drawing  how  to  make  a  "ridger," 
a  **leveler"  and  a  "dammer." 

4.  Demonstrate  by  use  of  soil  and  water  on  ground 
out-of-doors  or  on  a  table  an  irrigation  system  for  a  40-acre 
farm,  which  is  to  be  used  for  trucking,  fruit  and  forage 
crops.  Show,  if  possible,  the  effect  upon  plants  by  giv- 
ing them  too  little,  too  much,  or  just  enough  water. 

5.  Show  how  to  lay  out  fields  for  a  40-acre  farm  on 
a  4-year  system  of  crop  rotation,  including  location  of  dif- 


72  AGRICULTURE 

ferent  crops,  pastures,  etc.,  which  will  do  well  in  your  lo- 
cality. 

7.  Irrigation  Play  Contests 

1.  'Drawing  contests  of  irrigation  plans,  projects  and 
methods  of  distributing  water. 

2.  Tool  making  contest,  making  levelers,  corrugators, 
V  shaped  drag,  and  ridger. 

3.  Irrigation  spelling  contest,  using  terms  or  words 
common  to  irrigation  methods,  tools  and  practises. 

4.  Table  or  out-of-door  soil  construction  of  irrigation 
plans  and  systems,  a  contest  to  see  who  can  make  out  of  soil, 
clay,  putty,  or  paper  pulp,  the  best  miniature  irrigated 
farm,  illustrating  source  of  water,  locks,  dams,  ditches  and 
field  distribution  methods. 

5.  Arithmetical  problem-making  and  solving  contest ; 
all  problems  must  concern  costs,  measurements,  water  ren- 
tals, etc.,  as  directly  related  to  irrigation. 

8.  Irrigation  Club  Projects 

Club  projects  on  any  or  all  of  the  crops  outlined  in  the 
other  chapters  can  be  undertaken  on  the  irrigated  land  with 
great  success.  The  cultural  methods  used,  rental  of  land, 
and  kind  of  crops  will  of  necessity  be  recommended  and 
outlined  on  a  different  basis. 

It  is  quite  possible  that  a  Reclamation  Club  would  be 
a  good  thing  in  localities  where  there  is  much  adjoining 
land  unused  and  a  possible  water  supply.  This  proj- 
ect should  be  based  upon  the  method  and  economy  of  recla- 
mation, management  of  plot,  yield,  cost,  exhibit  of  pro- 
ducts, and  records  kept. 


CHAPTER  V 
WHEAT 

BREAD  is  the  staff  of  life.  Whatever  else  we  may  have 
on  our  tables  we  usually  have  bread.  It  is  so  com- 
mon and  necessary  an  article  of  food  that  we  describe  pov- 
erty by  saying,  "Not  a  crust  of  bread  in  the  house." 

Yet  the  bread  that  you  and  I  eat — wheat  bread: — is  really 
a  rather  recent  addition  to  the  world's  food.  True,  wheat 
has  been  known  for  many  centuries, — so  long  that  no  one 
knows  when  or  where  it  originated.  But  not  until  the  last 
few  generations  has  it  been  found  possible  to  raise  enough 
so  that  the  great  mass  of  people  can  have  it  daily  for  food. 

But  even  yet  wheat  as  a  common  article  of  food  is 
almost  unknown  in  many  nations.  Probably  more  than 
half  the  people  living  in  the  world  to-day  have  never  tasted 
wheat  bread  such  as  we  eat  daily.  Either  wheat  is  not 
grown,  or  it  costs  more  than  other  foods  and  can  not  be 
afforded  by  the  common  people.  In  its  stead  they  eat  rice, 
barley  and  vegetables. 

1.     Importance  of  Wheat  as  a  Crop 

The  United  States  raises  more  wheat  than  any  other 
nation,  and  approximately  half  as  much  as  all  Europe  com- 
bined. We  supply  about  one-fifth  of  all  the  wheat  grown 
in  the  world.  Our  annual  crop  is  nearly  700,000,000  bush- 
els, enough  if  loaded  into  cars  to  make  two  solid  trains, 
one  reaching  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco,  and  the 
other  from  Regina  to  New  Orleans. 

The  wheat  belt  of  the  United  States.— The  best  wheat 
producing  regions  are  in  the  Middle  West  and  North.   Kan- 

73 


74 


AGRICULTURE 


WHEAT  75 

sas,  North  Dakota  and  INIinnesota  produce  not  far  from 
one-third  of  all  the  wheat  grown  in  the  United  States. 
If  to  these  we  add  the  following  twelve  states,  Nebraska, 
South  Dakota,  Washington,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Ohio,  Mis- 
souri, Pennsylvania,  Oklahoma,  California,  Michigan  and 
Oregon,  we  shall  have  the  fifteen  states  that  produce  more 
than  four-fifths  of  all  our  wheat. 

The  yield  of  wheat. — The  average  yield  of  wheat  for 
the  entire  country  is  about  half  what  it  is  for  corn,  or  four- 
teen bushels  to  the  acre.  The  states  that  produce  the  largest 
amount  of  wheat  are  not  necessarily  the  ones  that  show  the 
largest  yield  per  acre.  Taking  the  average  for  ten  years, 
the  ten  states  producing  the  largest  amount  of  wheat  rank 
in  the  following  order  in  the  yield  per  acre :  Washington, 
first;  Nebraska,  second;  Ohio,  third:  Illinois,  fourth;  Indi- 
ana, fifth ;  Missouri,  sixth ;  Minnesota,  seventh ;  Kansas, 
eighth ;  South  Dakota,  ninth ;  North  Dakota,  tenth. 

The  average  yield  of  wheat  is  gradually  increasing,  but 
all  too  slowly.  With  still  better  methods  of  farming  and 
with  better  selection  oi  seed  and  improvement  of  the  soil 
much  larger  crops  of  wheat  can  be  raised.  And  this  means 
cheaper  bread,  and  more  profit  in  farming. 

2.     Types  of  Wheat 

Wheat  is  classed  as  zmnter  wheat  or  spring  wheat,  de- 
pending on  whether  it  is  planted  in  the  fall  or  the  spring. 
It  is  also  classed  as  hard  or  soft  in  accordance  with  the 
quality  of  the  grain. 

There  are  three  or  more  distinct  types  of  winter  wheat, 
and  three  of  spring  wheat,  as  follows : 

1.  Soft  winter  wheat. 

2.  Semi-hard  winter  wheat. 

3.  Hard  winter  wheat. 


76  AGRICULTURE 

1.  Soft  spring  wheat. 

2.  Hard  spring  wheat. 

3.  Macaroni  wheat. 

These  types  furnish  a  great  many  different  varieties,  so 
many  that  it  would  be  a  hopeless  task  to  try  to  learn  them 
all.  The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the 
state  experiment  stations  have  tested  as  many  as  one  thou- 
sand different  varieties  since  1895. 

Climate  and  type. — In  general,  the  more  humid 
climates  produce  the  soft  wheats  and  drier  climates  the  hard 
wheats.  The  introduction  of  hard  wheats  has  opened  up 
vast  western  regions  to  wheat  raising  which  were  too  dry 
for  the  soft  varieties. 

Better  flour  is  made  from  hard  than  from  soft  wheat, 
though  a  very  excellent  grade  is  made  by  mixing  the  two. 
Macaroni  wheat  is  the  hardest  type,  and  is  chiefly  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  macaroni,  though  some  of  this  type  is 
now  being  used  for  flour.  Macaroni  can  not  be  successfully 
made  from  the  soft  wheats. 

Winter  wheat. — Winter  wheat  is  planted  in  the  fall, 
lives  through  the  winter,  and  ripens  the  following  summer. 
It  requires  about  one  hundred  days  to  mature  after  growing 
weather  has  come  in  the  spring. 

About  two-thirds  of  all  the  wheat  grown  in  the  United 
States  is  of  winter  varieties.  In  regions  where  winter 
wheat  will  withstand  the  extremes  of  temperature  it  is  pre- 
ferred to  spring  varieties,  since  it  (1)  yields  more,  and 
(2)  is  more  free  from  disease  and  from  injury  by  the  vari- 
ous insect  pests. 

Kansas  and  Nebraska  are  the  great  centers  for  the 
hard  winter  varieties,  while  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  the 
softer  winter  varieties  are  chiefly  grown.  More  than  sixty 
per  cent,   of  all   the  winter  wheat  grown  in  the   United 


WHEAT 


77 


w 


RED  FIFE  MINN        BlueSTEM. 

Ccmmon  varieties  of  wheat. 


Harvesting  wheat  with  a  modern  binder. 


78  AGRICULTURE 

States  is  raised  in  the  states  of  Kansas,  Indiana,  Nebraska, 
Illinois,  Ohio,  Missouri,  Pennsylvania,  Oklahoma  and 
Texas. 

Spring  wheat. — Spring  wheat  is  adapted  to  localities 
where  climatic  conditions  are  not  favorable  to  winter  vari- 
eties. About  one-third  of  our  wheat  comes  from  the  spring- 
sowed  crop.  Most  varieties  of  spring  wheat  require  from 
one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  days  from  the 
date  of  planting  to  mature  them. 

Minnesota,  North  Dakota  and  South  Dakota  are  the 
principal  spring  wheat  regions  of  the  country.  These  three 
states  supply  seventy  per  cent,  of  all  the  spring  wheat 
grown  in  the  United  States. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  What  proportion  of  the  tilled  land  of  your  vicinity 
is  devoted  to  wheat?  Is  this  proportion  increasing  or  de- 
creasing ? 

2.  What  type  of  wheat  is  chiefly  grown,  winter  or 
spring?  Hard  or  soft?  Do  you  know  what  are  the  chief 
varieties  to  be  found  in  your  neighborhood?  Are  the  vari- 
eties bearded  or  beardless  ? 

3.  What  is  the  average  yield  of  wheat  to  the  acre  in 
your  region  ?  How  does  this  compare  with  the  yield  for  the 
state?  (Consult  your  state  agricultural  college  for  the 
yield  of  the  state.) 

4.  It  is  estimated  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  that  the  average  cost  of  producing  an  acre  of 
wheat  in  the  United  States  is  about  eleven  dollars,  includ- 
ing rental  or  interest  value  of  land.  Talk  with  your  father 
about  what  the  different  items  of  expense  cost  in  your 
vicinity  (such  as  fertilizer,  preparing  land,  seed,  planting, 
harvesting,  thrashing,  marketing,  rental).  Make  a  detailed 
list  of  these  expenses,  and  compare  with  the  average  cost  for 
the  country. 

5.  In  a  similar  manner  figure  what  it  costs  to  raise  an 
acre  of  corn.     Then  find  the  market  value  of  the  grain 


WHEAT  79 

from  an  acre  of  corn  and  from  an  acre  of  wheat,  based  on 
the  average  yield  for  your  vicinity.  Which  crop  pays  the 
better,  and  by  how  much  per  acre? 

3.     Growing  the  Wheat  Crop 

Wheat  grows  best  on  virgin  soil,  or  on  land  that  has 
been  renewed  by  means  of  forage  crops,  such  as  clover, 
alfalfa,  manure,  or  some  other  form  of  fertilizer.  The 
new  regions  opened  up  in  the  West  at  first  produce  large 
crops,  but  soon  fail  in  yield  if  wheat  is  raised  continuously 
without  a  plan  of  rotation  with  other  crops. 

Preparing  the  seed  bed. — Since  wheat  is  one  of  the 
crops  that  can  not  be  cultivated  after  planting,  the  seed  bed 
should  be  prepared  with  especial  care.  The  ground  should 
be  plowed,  and  then  disked  or  harrowed  until  it  is  well 
packed  and  finely  pulverized.  The  preparation  for  the  fall 
and  spring  seeding  is  essentially  the  same.  If  the  ground 
is  new,  the  plowing  may  be  shallow.  The  older  soils  require 
deeper  plowing. 

Spring  wheat  is  sometimes  disked  in  on  corn  land  with- 
out first  plowing  the  ground.  This,  however,  is  a  careless 
method  of  farming,  and  has  been  proved  by  careful  experi- 
ments not  to  secure  so  large  a  yield  as  from  plowed  land. 

Selecting  and  preparing  the  seed. — As  in  the  case 
of  corn,  the  best  seed  for  wheat  is  usually  that  grown  near 
home.  New  varieties  and  seed  grown  at  a  distance  should 
not  be  used  for  the  general  crop  until  carefully  tested  by 
agricultural  experiment  stations  and  found  adapted  to  the 
climate  and  soil  of  your  locality. 

Wheat  selected  for  seed  should  possess  the  following 
qualities:  (1)  A  plump  bright  grain  of  good  wheat;  (2) 
a  stiff  straw,  able  to  withstand  adverse  weather;  (3)  a 
compact  head,  ripening  early,  and  not  easily  shattered ;  (4) 


80  AGRICUI/rURE 

good  'bread  qualities;  and  (5)  ability  to  resist  insect  ene- 
mies and  diseases. 

Once  the  type  and  variety  selected  for  seed  are  decided 
upon,  the  wheat  should  be  run  through  a  fanning  mill. 
This  will  select  the  heaviest  and  plumpest  grains,  as  well 
as  remove  the  seed  of  noxious  weeds.  If  care  is  taken  thus 
to  secure  the  best  of  the  crop  for  seed  each  year,  there  need 
be  no  fear  of  the  seed  "running  out."  On  the  contrary,  the 
variety  may  actually  be  improved. 

Methods  of  planting. — The  method  formerly  used  in 
planting  wheat  was  to  sow  it  broadcast  on  the  plowed 
ground,  and  then  harrow  it  in.  This  is  a  very  wasteful  way 
of  planting,  however,  since  some  of  the  wheat  fails  to  be 
covered,  and  is  picked  up  by  the  birds ;  some  of  it  is  just 
barely  covered,  and  fails  to  secure  good  roots;  and  some 
of  it  is  covered  too  deeply,  and  grows  imperfectly. 

The  method  now  used  in  all  successful  farming  is  to 
plant  the  wheat  w^ith  a  drill.  This  sets  the  seed  at  a  uni- 
form depth,  and  gives  it  a  moist  fine  bed  of  soil.  Nu- 
merous experiments  have  shown  that  the  best  depth  to 
plant  wheat  for  average  years  is  from  one  and  a  half 
to  three  inches.  Wheat,  like  corn,  loses  both  time  and 
strength  by  being  planted  too  deeply. 

Wherever  possible,  wheat  should  be  drilled  in  rows  run- 
ning east  and  west.  In  dry  regions,  the  prevailing  winds 
then  blow  snow  and  dirt  into  the  drills  instead  of  out  of 
them,  as  is  the  case  when  the  rows  run  north  and  south. 
In  east-and-west  rows  the  drill  also  tends  to  shade  the  roots 
of  the  plant,  and  so  protect  them  from  the  frequent  thaw- 
ings  and  freezings  which  occur  in  the  case  of  winter  wheat 
when  the  sun  shines  directly  into  the  drill.  Because  of 
these  uses  of  the  drill  ridges,  the  ground  should  not  be 
harrowed  after  the  wheat  is  sown. 


WHEAT  81 

Harvesting  the  wheat. — Except  in  the  great  plains  or 
semi-arid  regions  of  the  West  where  practically  no  rain  falls 
during  the  harvest  season,  wheat  should  be  cut  as  soon  as  it 
is  ripe  enough.  Many  farmers  allow  their  wheat  to  become 
so  ripe  as  to  shatter,  and  much  loss  results.  It  may  be  cut 
while  the  grain  is  still  soft,  so  that  it  can  be  crushed 
between  the  thumb  and  finger.  This  will  not  injure  very 
much  tbe  quality  of  the  grain,  and  the  straw  will  be  of  much 
greater  value  if  cut  slightly  green.  Early  cutting  also  re- 
duces the  risk  of  storms. 

In  regions  where  the  grain  can  be  allowed  to  stand  with- 
out shattering  until  it  has  become  fully  ripe  and  dry,  the 
cutting  and  thrashing  are  often  accomplished  in  one  process. 
This  is  done  by  a  combination  harvester  and  thrasher  drawn 
by  from  twenty  to  thirty  horses,  or  by  a  tractor  engine. 

Wheat  cut  with  the  harvester  should  be  carefully 
shocked,  usually  in  nine-bundle  shocks,  eight  bundles  stand- 
ing firmly  on  the  ground  in  the  form  of  a  circle,  and  the 
ninth  used  for  a  cap-sheaf.  Careless  shocking  is  respon- 
sible for  much  loss  from  weathering. 

When  the  wheat  is  well  dried  in  the  shock,  it  should 
at  once  be  thrashed,  or  else  stacked  in  well-built  stacks. 
Wheat  is  too  valuable  to  leave  standing  long  in  the  field 
waiting  for  a  thrashing  machine.  If  once  put  in  stacks, 
it  should  be  allowed  to  stand  for  several  weeks  before 
thrashing  in  order  that  it  may  "pass  through  the  sweat." 


4.    Diseases  and  Insect  Enemies  of  Wheat 

Wheat  is  the  prey  of  many  different  diseases  and  insect 
enemies,  which  sometimes  almost  totally  destroy  the  crop. 
Many  of  these  are  coming  to  be  better  understood,  and  rem- 
edies for  them  devised.     Three  principal  diseases  attacking 


82 


AGRICULTURE 


plant  organism  tnat  grows  upon  some  other  plant,  or  on 
wheat  are  scab,  rust  and  smut.  These  are  all  caused  by  the 
growth  of  fungi  on  the  wheat  plant.     A  fungus  is  a  tiny 


A  good  stand  of  wheat,  raised  by  a  Georgia  club  boy. 

animal  tissue,  and  draws  its  living  from  its  host.  We  call 
any  organism  that  gets  its  living  off  another  organism  in  this 
or  a  similar  way  a  parasite. 


WHEAT  •     83 

Scab  in  wheat. — Scab  is  the  least  common  of  the  three 
diseases  mentioned,  yet  it  sometimes  causes  much  loss  in 
certain  localities.  It  attacks  the  glumes,  or  chaff,  which 
surround  the  kernels  of  wheat  in  the  head.  The  entire  head 
is  seldom  destroyed,  only  a  few  of  the  glumes  being  af- 
fected. Scab  results  in  a  shrinkage  of  the  kernels,  and 
hence  a  reduction  in  the  yield  and  an  injury  of  the  quality 
of  the  wheat.  No  cure  has  yet  been  discovered  for  wheat 
scab.  A  second  crop  of  wheat  should  not  follow  wheat 
that  has  been  affected  with  scab.  If  this  is  necessary,  how- 
ever, the  stubble  of  the  first  crop  should  be  burned  to  de- 
stroy as  much  of  the  scab  as  possible. 

Rust  in  wheat. — Rust  is  one  of  the  most  serious  en- 
emies of  the  wheat  crop.  It  is  nearly  always  present  in 
some  degree,  and  has  at  times  almost  wholly  destroyed  the 
crop  over  considerable  areas.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
rust,  one  attacking  the  leaves  and  the  other  the  stems  of 
the  plants.  The  stem  rust  is  much  more  destructive  than 
the  leaf  rust. 

Rust  may  in  some  cases  live  over  winter  on  the  old 
plants,  and  be  ready  to  attack  the  new  crop  if  wheat  is 
again  planted  on  the  field.  Wheat  rust  also  lives  on  other 
plants,  especially  the  barberry,  and  is  spread  from  them  by 
birds  or  insects  to  wheat-fields.  Laws  have  been  passed  in 
some  states  requiring  the  destruction  of  barberry  hedges 
because  of  their  part  in  spreading  rust. 

Moist  seasons  are  more  favorable  to  the  ravages  of 
rust  than  dry.  Rust  results  in  weakening  the  stem  of  the 
wheat  plant,  and  reducing  the  size  and  quality  of  the  grain. 
In  some  cases  the  heads  even  fail  to  fill,  and  the  crop  is  a 
total  failure.  There  is  no  known  cure  for  rust,  though  cer- 
tain  varieties   of  wheat  are  better  able   to   resist   it   than 


84 


AGRICULTURE 


A' 


f/i 


\*f 


stinking   smut  of   wheat;    smutted   head   and   smut   balls    at 
right;  sound  head  and  kernels  at  left. 


WHEAT  85 

others.     The   earlier  varieties   are   usually   safer   than  the 
later. 

Smut  in  wheat. — There  are  two  kinds  of  smut  that 
attack  the  wheat  plant,  loose  smut  and  stinking  smut.  Loose 
smut  usually  destroys  both  the  glumes  and  the  kernels,  leav- 
ing only  the  bare  stem.  Stinking  smut  grows  inside  the 
glumes,  destroying  the  kernel  only,  and  taking  its  place. 
The  spores  from  which  stinking  smut  grows  attach  them- 
selves to  the  kernels  of  wheat,  and  are  therefore  often 
sown  with  the  seed.  This  fact  makes  it  possible  to  combat 
this  type  of  smut  by  treating  seed  wheat  in  such  a  way  as 
to  kill  any  smut  spores  that  may  be  present. 

One  of  the  surest  and  cheapest  ways  of  treating  the 
seed  for  stinking  smut  is  by  the  application  of  a  solution 
of  formalin.  One  pint  of  forty  per  cent,  formalin  mixed 
in  forty-five  gallons  of  water  will  treat  one  hundred  bushels 
of  wheat.  The  wheat  may  be  spread  out  thin  on  a  tight 
floor  and  sprinkled  with  the  moisture,  shoveling  it  over 
so  that  each  grain  is  sure  to  become  dampened. 

After  it  is  well  sprinkled  the  wheat  should  be  covered 
with  sacks  or  blankets  to  keep  it  from  drying  out  too  rap- 
idly. After  a  few  hours,  it  may  be  spread  out,  or  stirred,  to 
hasten  the  drying  in  preparation  for  sowing.  Ten  pounds  of 
copper  sulphate  dissolved  in  twenty-five  gallons  of  water 
may  be  used  instead  of  the  formalin. 

Loose  smut  may  be  prevented  by  what  is  called  the  hot- 
water  treatment  of  the  seed.  The  wheat  is  put  into  sacks 
and  immersed  in  tubs  of  water  warmed  to  a  temperature 
of  one  hundred  and  twenty  degrees  Fahrenheit.  When  the 
wheat  has  become  thoroughly  warmed,  it  is  taken  out, 
drained,  and  again  dipped  in  water,  this  time  heated  to 
a  temperature  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  degrees.  The 
sacks  may  now  be  dipped  at  once  in  cold  water,  which  will 


86  AGRICULTURE 

serve  to  keep  the  kernels  from  swelling.  The  wheat  should 
then  be  spread  where  it  will  dry  quickly.  The  general  use 
of  these  well  tested  remedies  should  make  smut  of  rare 
occurrence. 

Chinch-bugs. — Chinch-bugs  are  among  the  worst  of 
the  insect  enemies  of  wheat.  They  are  easily  recognized  as 
a  small  dark-colored  insect,  with  white  wing  covers. 
Chinch-bugs  damage  the  wheat  by  sucking  the  sap  from 
the  plant,  and  thus  checking  its  growth.  The  mature  bugs 
live  over  winter,  lay  their  eggs  in  the  spring,  and  the  young 
are  soon  hatched  out,  showing  at  first  a  reddish  color. 

No  effective  way  of  controlling  chinch-bugs  has  yet 
been  discovered.  It  is,  however,  helpful  to  burn  the  rub- 
bish of  any  infected  field  in  the  fall,  as  this  will  destroy 
large  numbers  of  the  bugs,  and  leave  many  of  the  remainder 
to  perish  during  winter  without  hiding-places. 

The  Hessian  fliy. — The  Hessian  fly  is  a  small,  mos- 
quito-like insect  that  lays  its  eggs  on  the  growing  wheat. 
These  eggs  soon  hatch,  and  the  larvae  begin  at  once  to  suck 
the  juices  from  the  young  plant. 

One  method  of  handling  these  pests  is  to  turn  under 
the  first  planting  of  wheat  that  has  been  attacked,  and  then 
sow  another  crop  on  the  ground.  This,  however,  is  an  ex- 
pensive method  of  getting  rid  of  them.  The  burning  of 
fields  in  the  fall,  fall  plowing  and  rotation  of  crops  are 
all  helpful  in  checking  their  ravages. 

Grasshoppers. — Grasshoppers  are  less  to  be  dreaded 
now  than  in  earlier  years,  though  they  occasionally  do  great 
damage  to  the  wheat  crop.  The  grasshopper  lays  its  eggs 
in  the  summer,  and  they  do  not  hatch  until  the  following 
spring.  It  is  possible  greatly  to  reduce  their  number  by 
late,  deep  fall  plowing,  which  buries  the  eggs  so  deep 
that  the  young  when  hatched  do  not  find  their  way  to  the 


WHEAT 


87 


Loose  smut  of  wheat.     Sound  head  at  left;  dififereut  stages  of 
smutted  development  at  right. 


88  AGRICULTURE 

surface.      Poisonous   sprays   are  also   used  to  destroy   the 
young  hoppers. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  If  winter  wheat  has  been  sown  in  your  neighbor- 
hood, visit  two  or  more  fields  and  note  (1)  whether  the 
seed  was  sown  broadcast  or  drilled,  (2)  the  direction  of 
the  drill  rows,  and  (3)  the  evenness  of  the  stand. 

2.  Make  a  collection  of  all  the  different  types  of  wheat 
available,  and  learn  to  identify  them,  (1)  from  the  grain, 
and  (2)  from  the  head  and  straw. 

3.  Obtain  samples  of  unthrashed  wheat,  and  search  for 
leaf  rust;  for  stem  rust.  Compare  the  heads  and  kernels 
on  the  rusted  stalks  with  those  on  healthy  heads. 

4.  Find  examples  of  stinking  smut,  of  loose  smut. 
What  is  the  condition  of  the  straw  and  grain  in  each  case 
as  compared  with  healthy  plants? 

5.  Go  out  into  fields  of  wheat  and  oat  stubble  and 
look  under  bunches  of  straw  or  rubbish  for  chinch-bugs. 
Bring  specimens  to  school  and  examine  them  so  that  you 
can  quickly  identify  them. 

6.  Secure  a  score-card  for  wheat,  and  judge  from 
twenty-five  to  one  hundred  grains  of  wheat. 

7.  What  is  the  best  method  for  the  testing  of  wheat 
for  vitality?  Look  up  instructions  on  the  blotter  tester 
and  a  few  of  the  commercial  tray  testers.  Make  a  test  of 
one  hundred  wheat  seeds  and  judge  for  vitality,  dividing 
the  seed  after  germination  into  three  classes,  strong,  weak 
and  dead. 

8.  How  would  you  keep  a  record  or  bookkeeping  ac- 
count of  a  field  of  wheat?  Make  out  a  debit  and  credit 
account  covering  a  season's  expenses  and  receipts  with  one 
acre  of  wheat.     (See  Farmers'  Bulletins,  511  and  572.) 

9.  Sketch  a  map  of  the  United  States  and  locate  the 
wheat  producing  states  and  sections.  Insert  the  last  cen- 
sus reports  of  wheat  production  for  each  state.  Where  are 
the  leading  wheat  mills  of  the  country? 


WHEAT  '  89 

10.  Compare  wheat  bread  with  bread  made  from  other 
products  such  as  corn,  rye,  etc.  What  differences  do  you 
note  ? 

11.  How  much  wheat  is  exported  annually  from  this 
country?    How  much  wheat  is  imported? 

12.  What  foreign  countries  produce  wheat?  Locate 
them  on  the  map. 

(See  end  of  chapter  on  "Oats"  for  suggestions  as  to 
wheat  demonstrations,  play  contests  and  club  projects.) 


CHAPTER  VI 
OATS 

OATS  are  one  of  the  world's  most  important  grain  crops. 
Though  not  so  old  as  wheat,  oats  have  been  grown  in 
Europe  for  centuries.  They  were  brought  to  this  country 
by  the  early  settlers,  and  are  now  raised  in  every  state. 
The  United  States  produces  about  one-fourth  of  all  the  oats 
grown  in  the  world.  Oats  are  chiefly  valuable  as  a  food 
for  animals,  yet  they  are  also  widely  used  as  a  human  food. 

1.     Importance  of  the  Oat  Crop 

Our  oat  crop  is  slightly  more  than  a  billion  bushels  a 
year,  or  a  total  yield  of  about  one-third  more  than  wheat. 
Because  of  the  higher  price  of  wheat,  however,  the  value 
of  the  oat  crop  is  only  about  half  that  of  wheat.  Among 
all  farm  crops,  oats  rank  fifth  in  value,  being  surpassed  only 
b^y  corn,  cotton,  wheat  and  hay. 

The  oat  region. — The  great  oat  producing  region  of 
the  United  States  extends  from  New  York  and  Pennsyl- 
vania westward  to  Nebraska,  Kansas  and  the  Dakotas. 
Each  state  in  this  great  chain  plants  more  than  a  million 
acres  of  oats  annually. 

The  following  chart  shows  the  thirteen  states  that  pro- 
duce about  four-fifths  of  all  the  oats  raised  in  the  United 
States,  with  the  per  cent,  of  the  total  crop  grown  in  each : 

90 


OATS  91 

Iowa  15% 

Illinois  14% 

Minnesota 8% 

Wisconsin  6% 

Ohio  6% 

Indiana  5% 

North  Dakota 5% 

Nebraska 5% 


Michigan  4% 

Kansas  • 4% 

New  York         3% 

South  Dakota   3% 

Pennsylvania     <—    3% 

All  others 19% 


The  yield  and  profit. — The  average  yield  per  acre 
throughout  the  United  States  is  about  thirty  bushels.  The 
highest  yields  are  in  the  far  Northwest,  where  the  rainfall 
is  heavy  during  the  growing  season,  or  where  irrigation  is 
used.  Here  the  crop  not  uncommonly  runs  from  one  hun- 
dred to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  bushels  to  the  acre, 
and  sometimes  reaches  one  hundred  and  fifty  bushels. 

In  the  corn  belt,  oats  are  usually  a  less  profitable  crop 
than  corn.  The  yield  is  less  per  acre,  and  the  market  price 
lower,  while  the  cost  of  production  Is  about  the  same. 
Iowa  and  Illinois  are  the  two  leading  states  in  the  amount  of 
oats  produced.  The  cost  of  growing  an  acre  of  oats  if  we 
include  the  rental  value  of  the  land,  will  average  from  ten 
to  twelve  dollars.  When  oats  are  thirty-five  cents  a  bushel, 
it  is  evident  that  a  crop  of  thirty  bushels  to  the  acre  leaves  no 
margin  of  profit. 

While  oats  do  not  pay  so  well  as  corn,  it  is  necessary, 
nevertheless,  to  raise  them,  even  in  the  corn  region.  For 
oats  are  needed,  ( 1 )  to  make  possible  the  rotation  of  crops, 
and  (2)  as  a  food  for  stock,  especially  working  horses. 
This  crop,  like  com  and  wheat,  can  easily  be  increased  in 


92 


AGRICULTURE 


Two  types  of  oat  heads:   spreading  or  panicled  on  the  left; 
side  or  horse-mane  on  the  right. 


OATS  93 

yield  and  profit  by  improving  the  soil  and  employing  bet- 
ter methods  of  seed  selection  and  tillage.  It  is  not  impos- 
sible to  secure  an  average  yield  of  from  fifty  to  seventy-five 
bushels  to  the  acre  throughout  the  oat    region. 

2.    Types  of  Oats 

Two  general  types  or  classes  of  oats  are  easily  dis- 
tinguished— the  spreading,  or  panided,  and  the  side-bearing 
or  horse-mane.  The  former  has  a  spreading,  bush-like 
head,  branching  from  all  sides  of  the  central  stem;  the 
latter  carries  the  grains  on  short  branches,  all  of  which  are 
attached  to  one  side  of  the  stem. 

Varieties  for  different  regions. — It  is  impossible  to 
tell  how  many  different  varieties  of  these  two  types  exist. 
As  in  the  case  of  wheat  and  corn,  new  varieties  are  being 
developed  from  year  to  year.  Several  hundred  different 
varieties  are  now  shown  in  the  seed  lists. 

In  New  England,  the  northern  tier  of  states  and  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region,  white  oats  of  rather  late-ma- 
turing, large-grained  varieties  are  usually  most  successful. 
Examples  of  these  varieties  belonging  to  the  spreading  type 
are :  Clydesdale,  Big  Four,  Swedish  Select  and  Lincoln ;  of 
the  horse-mane  type,  White  Russian  and  Tartarian  are 
well  known. 

In  the  Missouri,  Mississippi  and  Ohio  River  regions, 
extending  as  far  south  as  Kansas,  Missouri,  Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee and  Texas,  and  as  far  east  as  Ohio,  small-grained, 
early,  yellow  varieties  have  proved  the  best.  The  Kherson, 
Silvermine,  Big  Four  and  Sixty  Day  are  examples  of  these 
varieties. 

Successful  fall  seeding  of  oats  is  possible  only  in  the 
southern  states.  For  southern  fall  seeding.  Winter  Turf 
and  Red  Rustproof  are  the  varieties  most  used.    For  spring 


94  •  AGRICULTURE 

seeding  in  this  region  the  Burt  and  Red  Rustproof  are  quite 
satisfactory. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.     How  many  acres  in  your  father's  farm?    How  many 
acres  are  cultivated  this  year?     How  many  acres  in  grass 


A  -.  C  U 

(A)  Sixty  Day,  grain  medium-sized,  slender,  yellow;  (B)  Red 
Rustproof,  grain  large,  plump,  reddish-brown;  (C)  North 
Finnish  Black,  grain  medium-sized,  plump,  black;  (D)  Swedish 
Select,  grain  white,  large  and  plump. 

land  and  pasture?     How  many  acres  in  garden,  orchard, 
lawn  and  barnyard? 

2.  How  many  acres  are  devoted  (1)  to  corn;  (2)  to 
wheat;  (3)  to  oats;  (4)  to  other  farm  crops?  What  per- 
centage is  the  acreage  of  each  crop  to  all  the  land  culti- 
vated?   To  the  whole  farm? 

3.  Find  how  many  acres  altogether  in  the  farms  rep- 
resented by  the  pupils  in  the  school.  Then  answer  each 
of  the  four  questions  asked  in  number  **2"  for  all  these 
farms  summed  together.    How  do  the  percentages  for  each 


OATS  95 

crop  raised  on  your  father's  farm  compare  with  the  per- 
centages for  the  entire  school  district? 

4.  What  was  the  yield  of  oats  per  acre  on  your  father's 
farm  this  year?  What  is  the  yield  of  corn?  Learn  the 
market  price  of  each  grain,  and  figure  the  value  per  acre 
for  each.  Now  ask  your  father  to  help  you  determine  the 
cost  of  raising  and  harvesting  an  acre  of  each  crop.  Which 
is  the  more  profitable  crop,  and  by  how  much  to  the 
acre? 

5.  Which  of  the  two  types  of  oats  is  raised  on  your 
father's  farm?    What  variety? 

6.  Make  a  collection  of  five  or  more  different  varieties 
of  oats,  study  the  kernels,  and  the  entire  plant  if  possible, 
and  learn  to  identify  quickly  the  chief  varieties  grown  in 
your  region. 

3.    Raising  the  Crop 

Oats  are  usually  planted  with  less  care  than  any  other 
crop.  Where  they  follow  corn  in  the  rotation  of  crops, 
they  are  often  sown  broadcast  on  the  corn  land  without 
previous  cultivation  or  preparation  of  the  ground.  The 
field  is  then  either  disked  or  gone  over  with  a  cultivator 
and  harrowed.  This  is  a  careless  method  of  farming,  and 
undoubtedly  results  in  a  diminished  yield. 

Preparing  the  seed  bed. — When  oats  are  sown  after 
corn  the  seed  bed  should  be  prepared  by  plowing  or  two 
thorough  diskings  before  seeding.  The  oats  may  then  be 
covered  by  harrowing.  The  corn  stalks  should  be  broken 
down  before  disking.  This  can  easily  be  done  by  means 
of  a  heavy  pole  dragged  broadside  across  the  rows  when 
the  ground  is  frozen.  A  still  better  method  is  to  cut  the 
stalks  with  a  corn  cutter.  If  the  gtowth  of  stalks  and  weeds 
is  especially  heavy  on  the  field,  it  is  best  to  rake  and  burn 
the  rubbish  to  get  it  out  of  the  way  of  cultivation. 

It  sometimes  may  not  be  necessary  to  plow  the  ground 
for  oats  following  a  well  cultivated  crop.  Especially  is  this 
true  if  the  plowing  can  not  be  done  in  the  fall.    One  of  the 


96  AGRICULTURE 

things  most  necessary  in  growing  oats  is  to  get  the  seed 
into  the  ground  as  early  as  it  can  be  worked  in  the  spring. 
And  the  seeding  can  be  done  more  quickly  by  disking  than 
by  plowing.  There  is  little  or  no  danger  to  oats  from 
freezing  after  they  are  sown,  and  the  seed  will  sprout  and 


f 


i        W^        -^'' 


f 


i. 


S/XTYD/^y^ 


SWED/SN , 

Two  coiiiiiiuii  varieties  of  oats. 

grow  in  a  much  colder  temperature  than  that  necessary  for 
corn. 

Methods  of  seeding. — Oats  are  sown  by  two  methods, 
(1)  scattering  the  seed  broadcast  over  the  ground,  and  (2) 
drilling.    The  old  method  of  broadcast  seeding  was  to  scat- 


OATS  97 

ter  the  seed  by  hand  from  a  sack  slung  over  the  shoulder. 
Machines  for  seeding  havp  been  devised  which  can  be  at- 
tached to  the  end-gate  of  a  wagon.  The  seeder  is  driven 
by  one  of  the  rear  wheels  of  the  wagon  by  means  of  a 
sprocket  and  chain. 

Drilling  has  been  found  to  result  in  a  larger  yield  than 
broadcast  seeding.  The  drill  plants  the  seed  uniformly  over 
the  field  and  covers  it  well.  The  drilled  crop  comes  up 
more  evenly,  and  ripens  more  nearly  at  the  same  time  than 
that  from  broadcast  sowing.  Less  seed  is  required  when 
the  planting  is  done  with  the  drill,  since  practically  all  the 
seed  is  covered  and  given  a  chance  to  grow.  This  is  im- 
possible with  broadcast  seeding. 

A  mistake  is  often  made  in  planting  oats  too  deep.  The 
ground  is  usually  moist  when  the  planting  is  done,  and  depth 
is  not  required  to  secure  moisture  to  start  growth.  Many 
agricultural  experiment  stations  have  tested  different  depths 
of  planting,  and  recommend  about  one  inch  as  the  best 
depth  for  most  regions. 

Preparing  the  seed. — Seed  oats  should  never  be  taken 
directly  from  the  bin  and  sown,  no  matter  how  promising 
the  grain  looks.  For  oats  ordinarily  contain  more  dirt, 
weed  seed  and  light  grains  than  wheat. 

The  seed  should  always  be  run  through  the  fanning  mill. 
The  current  of  air  blows  out  the  light  grains  and  much  of 
the  rubbish,  and  the  smaller  grains  are  removed  by  the 
sieves.  This  process  of  cleaning  should  generally  exclude 
one-third  or  one-fourth  of  the  oats  run  through  the  mill. 
If  the  seed  is  very  light  a  still  larger  proportion  will  need 
to  be  rejected. 

Careful  tests  have  shown  that  seed  prepared  in  this 
way  will  yield  several  bushels  to  the  acre  more  than  if 
sown  directly  from  the  bin.     Many  of  the  light  grains  fail 


98  AGRICULTURE 

to  sprout,  and  most  of  those  that  grow  produce  weak 
plants  »that  yield  little  or  nothing.  It  will  well  pay  every 
farmer  to  take  time  in  the  winter  to  prepare  his  seed  oats. 

Improvement  of  the  seed. — It  is  possible  greatly  to 
improve  a  variety  of  oats  by  careful  selection  of  the  seed. 
This  may  be  done  by  going  into  the  field  just  before  the 
crop  is  harvested,  and  gathering,  head  by  head,  the  strong- 
'est,  largest  grained  and  best  yielding  plants,  also  giving 
preference  to  those  that  are  freest  from  disease.  From  a 
peck  to  a  bushel  or  more  thus  selected  is  thrashed  out,  the 
small,  light  or  imperfect  grains  rejected,  and  the  choice 
seed  sown  on  a  special  seed  plat  to  raise  seed  for  the  com- 
ing year's  crop. 

Harvesting  the  crop. — Oats  are  harvested  with  the 
grain  binder,  the  header,  the  mowing  machine,  and  the 
combined  harvester  and  thrasher.  By  far  the  greater  part 
of  our  oats  crop  is  cut  with  the  binder. 

The  best  time  for  cutting  oats  is  just  as  they  are  pass- 
ing out  of  the  hard-dough  stage  of  ripening.  On  account 
of  the  fact  that  they  shatter  rather  easily  when  ripe,  it  may 
be  necessary,  especially  if  the  acreage  is  large,  to  begin 
when  the  grain  is  passing  out  of  the  milk  stage.  Cutting 
too  early  leaves  the  grain  slightly  lighter  and  of  a  greenish 
color. 

The  best  method  of  shocking  oats  depends  on  the  ripe- 
ness of  the  crop  when  harvested.  If  the  oats  are  in  the 
hard-dough  stage  when  cut,  they  should  be  shocked  in  well- 
built,  round  shocks.  If  the  grain  is  green  and  the  straw 
heavy  or  full  of  weeds,  the  long  shock  is  better,  since  it 
allows  freer  curing.  Either  type  of  shock  should  be  capped, 
except  in  regions  where  the  winds  are  usually  strong  enough 
to  blow  a  cap  sheaf  off,  in  which  case  it  takes  damage  from 
lying  on  the  ground. 


OATS 


99 


100  AGRICULTURE 

Thrashing. — Oats  may  be  thrashed  from  the  shock, 
or  stacked  and  thrashed  any  time  during  the  fall.  A  some- 
what better  grade  of  oats  is  obtained  by  stacking  and  allow- 
ing the  oats  to  "go  through  the  sweat"  before  thrashing. 
The  straw  is  also  worth  more  for  feed  when  the  oats  have 
cured  in  the  stack. 

The  custom  followed  by  careless  farmers  of  leaving 
grain  standing  for  weeks  in  the  shock  exposed  to  the 
weather  while  waiting  for  the  thrashing  machine  can  not 
be  too  strongly  condemned.  A  period  of  hot  wet  weather 
is  almost  certain  to  start  the  oats  to  molding,  or  sprouting 
in  the  shock.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  weather  is  very 
dry,  the  oats  shatter,  and  many  bushels  are  lost  in  handling. 
If  the  thrashing  machine  can  not  be  secured  as  soon  as  the 
oats  have  dried  sufficiently  to  thrash,  they  should  be  stacked 
in  well-built,  round  stacks  so  constructed  as  to  turn  the 
rains. 

4.     Insect  Enemies  and  Diseases 

Oats  are,  on  the  whole,  subject  to  fewer  diseases,  and 
the  prey  of  fewer  insects  than  wheat.  The  crop  is,  there- 
fore, less  liable  to  total  failure  from  these  causes. 

Insect  enemies. — Chinch-bugs  attack  oats,  as  well  as 
wheat,  though  they  usually  do  much  less  damage  to  oats 
than  to  wheat.  They  can  be  controlled  only  as  already 
described  in  the  case  of  wheat. 

In  some  seasons  the  army  worm  has  caused  much  loss 
to  oats,  but  usually  not  over  extensive  areas.  There  is 
no  satisfactory  method  known  of  controlling  its  ravages. 
What  is  known  as  the  green  bug,  a  grain  aphis,  is  one 
of  the  most  prominent  enemies  of  oats.  Grasshoppers  occa- 
sionally consume  the  greater  part  of  the  crop  in  relatively 
small  areas. 


OATS  /  :     :^r;^;;^-,:lp)> 

Diseases  of  oats. — The  chief  diseases  attacking  oats 
are  rusts  and  smuts.  These  are  of  the  same  general  char- 
acter as  the  rusts  and  smuts  of  wheat,  fungous  growths 
feeding  on  the  growing  plant. 

The  rusts  are  of  two  chief  types:  (1)  leaf  rust,  which 
is  of  a  reddish-brown  color,  and  attacks  the  leaves,  and  in 
some  degree  the  stems,  of  oats  shortly  before  ripening  time ; 
and  (2)  stem  rust,  which  is  to  be  recognized  as  black  spots 
appearing  on  the  stems  and  leaves  of  oats  just  before  they 
ripen. 

Stem  rust  is  less  common  than  leaf  rust,  but  when 
present  is  far  more  injurious  to  the  crop.  The  rusts  are 
more  serious  as  an  enemy  of  oats  in  the  South  than  in  the 
North,  appearing  in  the  South  almost  every  year,  and  greatly 
reducing  the  yield.  Rust  is  more  common  in  moist  hot  sea- 
sons than  in  dry  seasons.  No  sure  cure  has  been  discovered 
for  rust  in  oats,  though  some  varieties  are  more  able  to 
resist  its  attack  than  others. 

Smut  ordinarily  causes  more  injury  to  oats  than  any 
other  disease.  It  has  been  estimated  that  from  two  to  three 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  crop  is  destroyed  every  year  by  smut, 
causing  a  loss  of  from  $6,000,000  to  $10,000,000. 

The  smut  of  oats  is  easily  recognized  a  little  time  before 
the  crop  is  ripe.  Instead  of  the  kernels  are  found  small 
masses  of  smut  dust  which  have  taken  the  place  of  the 
grain.  Sometimes  these  smut  balls  are  covered  by  the 
chaff,  much  as  the  kernel  should  be,  and  other  times  the 
chaff  is  lacking  and  the  smut  fully  exposed. 

While  there  are  two  kinds  of  smut  in  oats,  both  will 
yield  to  the  same  treatment.  Smut  may  be  wholly  pre- 
vented by  treating  the  seed  with  formalin,  as  described 
for  the  treatment  of  wheat.  It  will  also  be  effectually  pre- 
vented by  the  hot-water  treatment.     In   either  treatment 


m 


AGRICULTURE 


Smut  of  cats:  smutted  head  at    right;    sound  head  at.  left. 


OATS  103 

the  method  is  practically  the  same  as  for  the  seed  wheat. 
With  so  simple  and  sure  a  remedy  for  smut,  every  farmer 
who  lives  in  a  smut  region  should  treat  his  seed  before 
sowing.  It  costs  very  little,  and  may  result  in  an  increase 
of  several  bushels  of  oats  to  the  acre. 


Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  How  did  your  father  prepare  the  ground  for  oats 
last  fall  or  spring?  Were  they  sown  on  corn  land?  If  so, 
were  the  stalks  broken  down,  or  pastured  close?  Was  the 
ground  disked  before  the  oats  were  sown  ?  If  so,  how  many 
diskings  ?  If  more  than  one,  was  the  second  disking  across 
the  first,  or  by  lapping?  Which  is  the  better  way?  How 
many  harrowings  did  the  oats  receive? 

2.  At  what  date  are  oats  usually  sown  in  your  region? 
When  does  harvest  begin?  How  many  days,  then,  are  re- 
quired for  the  crop  to  mature  ?  How  much  seed  does  your 
father  use  to  the  acre  ? 

3.  Collect  samples  of  unthrashed  oats,  and  examine 
(1)  for  each  kind  of  rust;  (2)  for  each  kind  of  smut.  If 
it  is  not  possible  to  find  unthrashed  oats,  examine  straw  for 
rust  and  evidences  of  smut. 

4.  Did  rust  or  smut  damage  the  crop  in  your  region 
last  season?  Does  your  father  treat  his  seed  oats  for 
smut?  If  so,  by  what  method?  Suppose  your  crop  was 
reduced  two  per  cent,  by  smut,  how  much  did  you  lose  per 
acre  ?  How  much  on  the  entire  crop  ?  Would  this  not  more 
than  pay  for  treating  the  seed  ? 

5.  Does  your  father  always  run  his  seed  oats  through 
a  fanning  mill  to  select  the  better  grains  and  remove  weed 
seed?  How  long  will  it  take  to  run  one  hundred  bushels 
through  a  fanning  mill?  Suppose  it  results  in  an  increase 
in  yield  of  two  bushels  per  acre,  how  much  profit  would 
there  be  from  the  cleaning? 

6.  Have  you  seen  oats  left  in  the  shock  until  they 
were  damaged,  either  by  wet  weather,  or  by  shattering? 
About  how  much  per  acre  does  it  cost  to  stack  oats  ?  Sup- 
pose there  is  a  loss  of  one  bushel  to  the  acre  by  allowing 


104  AGRICULTURE 

the  grain  to  stand  in  the  shock;  will  it  pay  to  stack?  (Con- 
sider also  the  better  quality  of  grain  and  straw.) 

7.  Make  out  a  debit  and  credit  sheet  showing  the 
proper  method  of  keeping  an  account  with  a  crop  of  oats 
covering  the  entire  season,  beginning  with  plowing  and 
closing  with  harvesting,  thrashing  and  marketing  of  the 
oats. 

8.  Test  one  hundred  grains  of  seed  oats  for  vitality  by 
the  use  of  the  rag-doll  tester  or  blotter  tester,  and  estimate 
the  percentage  of  strong,  weak  and  dead  seed.  From  this 
base  your  estimate  on  the  loss  of  crop  if  all  the  oats  sown 
in  your  home  field  are  of  the  same  standard  of  vitality. 

9.  Secure  a  copy  of  a  score-card  for  oats  and  judge 
twenty  or  thirty  grains  of  oats. 

10.  Sketch  a  map  of  the  United  States  and  locate  the 
oat  producing  states.  From  the  last  crop  census  record 
the  number  of  bushels  of  oats  produced  in  each  state. 
What  foreign  countries  produce  oats  ? 

5.     Wheat  and  Oat  Demonstrations 

1.  Demonstrate  the  making  of  a  vitality  test  for  wheat 
and  oat  seed. 

2.  The  method  of  separating  chaffy  wheat  or  oat  and 
weed  seed  from  the  better  grade  seed. 

3.  How  wheat  and  oats  may  be  used  for  the  table.  The 
girls  can  work  out  a  number  of  recipes. 

4.  In  the  field  demonstrate  the  proper  method  of  seed- 
ing and,  when  equipment  is  available,  the  methods  of  pre- 
paring seed  bed,  disking,  fertilizing,  etc. 

5.  Demonstrate  how  to  select  individual  wheat  and  oat 
heads  for  seed. 

6.     Wheat  and  Oat  Play  Contests 

Plan  and  carry  out  the  following  contest  games : 

1.  Variety  naming  contest. 

2.  Wheat  and  oat  judging  contest. 


OATS 


105 


o 

S 

5 

a; 
o 


^•2 


106  AGRICULTURE 

3.  Recipe  giving  contest. 

4.  Bread  baking  contest. 

5.  Oral  descriptions  by  class  members  of  a  thrashing 
day  at  home.  .; 


4> 


Wheat  or^Oat  Club  Project 


A  wheat  or  oat  club  makes  an  interesting  method  of 
studying  the  economic  production  of  these  cereals.  The 
members  of  the  club  should  arrange  to  grow  from  one  to 
five  acres,  studying  carefully  the  system  of  "follow-up'* 
instruction  provicjfed  by  the  leaders  of  such  clubs  in  the 
county  and  state,  and  keeping  a  complete  record  of  all  ob- 
servations, receipts  and  expenditures. 

The  girls  can  grow  a  small  plat,  of  not  less  than  one 
square  rod,  with  a  view  to  studying  the  life  history  of  the 
plant,  its  cultural  methods,  milling  processes  and  its  use  for 
food  products.  In  connection  with  domestic-science  work, 
the  girls  can  prepare  for  exhibit  purposes  the  various  dishes 
possible  from  o^fs  and  bake  a  loaf  of  wheat  bread  for  the 
school  exhibit  each  month.  This  makes  an  interesting  dem- 
onstration for  I^day  afternoon  programs. 

The  following^|)asis  of  award  may  be  used  in  connection 
with  the  small  grain  growing  club  work : 

1.  Yield  and  quality  of  production 30 

2.  Net  profit  on  investment-^i|:^^_ 30 

3.  Exhibit  both  grain  and  cqj|)k%^d  products 20 

4.  Crop  records  and  ^ory  cA  work 20 

Total    Score__-^ 1 100 

Note:     A  different  basis  ^-of  award  should  be  given  ii;  case        ^. - 
of  bread-baking  club  |f^ork,  based,^^|^st,  on  number  and  variety     r^^^" 
of  loaves   or  product  %aked;   second  on   average   score   of  nine   "  ,^* 
loaves   exhibited;    third,   on   club    plat   work;    fourth,   on   re^sord 
and   illustrated   story   of  the   bread   club   work. 


CHAPTER  VII 
COTTON 

COTTON  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  India, 
though  Columbus  found  it  growing  here  v^hen  he  came 
to  America.  Cotton  ranks  next  in  value  in  the  United  States 
after  the  cereals  and  the  forage  crops.  In  many  of  the 
southern  states  it  outranks  all  other  crops  put  together  both 
in  acreage  and  value.  The  annual  crop  is  worth  about 
three-fourths  of  a  billion  dollars. 

The  cotton  plant  is  raised  chiefly  for  its  fiber,  though 
other  parts  of  the  plant  are  also  useful.  The  seed  furnishes 
valuable  oils  for  lighting,  cooking  and  other  purposes. 
The  hulls  and  meal  left  from  the  manufacture  of  the  oils 
are  used  for  stock  feeding  and  fertilizers.  The  root  barks 
are  sometimes  used  for  medicine  while  the  stalk  fiber  is 
employed  for  the  manufacture  of  coarse  cloth  bags.  Some 
paper  manufacturers  are  also  using  the  stalk. 

1.     The  Cotton  Region 

Most  of  our  cotton  is  raised  in  the  following  twelve 
southern  states,  which  are  named  in  the  order  of  the  amount 
of  cotton  they  produce :  Texas,  Georgia,  South  Carolina, 
Mississippi,  Alabama,  North  Carolina,  Arkansas,  Louisiana, 
Tennessee,  Florida,  Oklahoma,  Missouri.  Cotton  is  also 
profitably  raised  in  southern  Virginia  and  in  parts  of  Ken- 
tucky. It  has  recently  been  introduced  with  success  in 
Arizona,  southern  Utah,  New  Mexico,  and  in  southern 
California,  where  the  long  staple  variety  is  especially  suc- 
cessful. 

107 


108 


AGRICULTURE 


m 


COTTON  109 

Proportion  of  land  in  cotton. — Mississippi,  Texas,  Ala- 
bama, Georgia  and  South  Carolina  devote  approximately 
one-half  of  their  tilled  land  to  the  raising  of  cotton,  the 
remainder  of  the  list,  from  twelve  to  about  twenty-five 
per  cent.  The  tendency  at  present  is  to  diversify  the 
farming  in  the  cotton  states,  raising  a  smaller  acreage  of 
cotton,  and  adding  corn,  oats,  legumes  and  other  forage 
crops.  With  better  methods  of  growing  cotton,  this  can 
be  done  without  reducing  the  amount  of  cotton  produced. 

Kinds  of  cotton  raised. — The  two  leading  varieties 
of  cotton  are  the  Sea  Island,  so  called  because  it  requires 
the  salt  sea  air  for  its  production,  and  the  Upland.  The 
Sea  Island  cotton  is  considered  the  best  produced,  because 
of  its  long  and  strong  fiber.  It  is  also  finer  than  the  other 
varieties.  The  Upland  cotton  has  green  seeds  while  the 
Sea  Island  cotton  has  black  seeds.  Upland  cotton  is 
grown  in  the  states  away  from  the  Gulf  and  along  the  At- 
lantic seaboard.  This,  variety  is  largely  manufactured  in 
our  own  cotton  mills,  while  Sea  Island  cotton  is  exported  in 
large  quantities  to  foreign  markets. 

2.     Raising  the  Crops 

Soil  requirements. — Well-drained  clay  or  sandy  loam 
soil  is  considered  best  for  cotton.  As  a  rule,  bottom  lands 
are  not  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  cotton,  because  most 
of  the  fertility  of  the  soil  goes  into  the  production  of  stalk 
rather  than  bolls.  There  are  two  important  reasons  why 
cotton  should  be  planted  only  on  fertile  soil,  and  given  the 
best  of  cultivation:  (1)  A  better  quality  of  cotton  and 
larger  yields  are  produced;  (2)  an  earlier  crop  is  secured 
and  the  danger  from  the  boll  weevil  and  other  insect  ene- 
mies is  greatly  reduced. 

Preparation  of  the  seed  bed. — The  ground  in  most 
parts  of  the  South  should  be  plowed  deep  for  cotton.    This 


110 


AGRICULTURE 


COTTON  111 

brings  to  the  surface  new  soil,  and  opens  up  deeper  levels 
for  the  roots  of  the  plants.  Many  successful  cotton  farm- 
ers plow  not  less  than  eight  or  ten  inches  deep,  and  then 
follow  with  a  subsoiler  that  breaks  the  bottom  of  the  fur- 
row open  to  an  additional  depth  of  four  or  more  inches.  It 
is  usually  advisable  to  plow  the  land  in  the  fall,  and  then 
disk  or  harrow  well  just  before  the  planting  season.  Cot- 
ton grows  better  on  a  well  bedded  soil  than  on  newly  pre- 
pared land. 

Applying  fertilizers.— Cotton  land  should  be  rich  in 
humus  or  vegetable  matter.  This  keeps  the  soil  from 
packing,  increases  the  capacity  for  water,  and  adds  to  the 
fertility.  Barnyard  manure  should  therefore  be  added 
whenever  possible.  Legumes  should  be  grown,  alternating 
with  cotton,  and  an  occasional  crop  of  soy-beans,  cow-peas, 
or  clover  plowed  under. 

Commercial  fertilizers  will  pay  on  certain  soils.  It  is 
well  to  secure  the  advice  of  an  expert  as  to  what  fertilizing 
elements  are  most  needed.  Acid  phosphate  is  commonly 
used  to  increase  the  yield  and  hasten  maturity.  Cottonseed- 
meal  may  be  used  especially  to  stimulate  stalk  growth. 

Planting. — Cotton  should  be  planted  as  early  as  the 
season  will  permit.  Not  only  will  a  better  grade  of  cotton 
result,  but  the  danger  from  the  boll  weevil  will  be  greatly 
lessened,  as  the  weevils  do  not  become  very  numerous  be- 
fore the  latter  part  of  July.  In  Texas  the  cotton  is  plant- 
ed in  March ;  in  North  Carolina  not  until  May.  The  plant 
requires  about  six  months  to  mature,  hence  it  is  easy  to 
see  why  the  cotton  territory  is  so  limited.  In  some  sec- 
tions it  is  considered  good  practise  to  plant  the  seed  on 
ridges  thrown  up  about  four  feet  apart.  On  very  dry  soils 
the  ground  should  be  kept  level.  About  four  feet  is  the 
proper  distance  between  rows  and  the  plants  should  be  set 


112 


AGRICULTURE 


from  twelve  to  twenty   inches  apart  in  the  row.     About 
thirty  pounds  of  good  seed  are  required  to  the  acre. 

Thinning  and  cultivation. — To  yield  the  best  results, 
the  cotton  plants  must  have  a  steady  and  vigorous  growth. 
As  soon  as  the  plants  are  up  and  all  danger  of  frost  is 
past,  the  cotton  should  be  thinned  with  the  hoe  to  a  uni- 
form and  perfect  stand.  Cotton  requires  good  cultivation 
to  kill  the  weeds,  keep  the  soil  loose,  and  preserve  a  dust 


Field  injured  by  cotton  worm.     (Insert)  cotton  worms. 

mulch  to  conserve  the  moisture.  Cultivation  should  begin 
with  the  harrow  before  the  young  plants  come  up.  When 
the  cotton  is  about  five  days  old  the  cultivation  should  be 
repeated.  Disk  and  shovel  cultivators  are  suitable  for  the 
later  cultivations.  Deep  plowing  should  be  avoided  late 
in  the  season,  so  that  the  roots  may  not  be  injured. 

Cotton  picking. — The  greatest  labor  connected  with 
cotton  production  is  the  picking  of  the  crop.  It  is  a  very 
slow  and  costly  operation  and  has  been  performed  entirely 


COTTON 


113 


114  AGRICULTURE 

by  hand  labor.  The  invention  of  the  cotton  gin  by  Eli 
Whitney  for  the  ginning  of  the  cotton  or  the  removal  of  the 
seed  from  the  lint  was  one  of  the  greatest  boons  to  cotton 
culture  that  has  come  to  the  South.  After  the  cotton  has 
been  ginned  it  is  made  up  into  large  bundles  called  bales, 
each  weighing  about  500  pounds.  These  bales  are  shipped 
to  the  mills  by  train  or  boat,  after  which  they  are  manu- 
factured into  thread  and  all  kinds  of  cloth. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Secure  samples  of  the  cotton  plant  at  various  stages 
of  growth,  and  make  a  study  of  all  parts. 

2.  What  different  varieties  of  cotton  are  grown  in  your 
region?  What  measures  are  being  taken  to  improve  the 
quality  ? 

3.  What  proportion  of  the  cotton  growers  in  your 
vicinity  practise  rotation  of  other  crops  with  cotton  ?  What 
crops  are  used? 

4.  What  fertilizers  are  employed  for  cotton  by  the 
most  successful  farmers  in  your  neighborhood? 

3.     Enemies  of  Cotton 

Cotton,  like  other  farm  crops,  is  subject  to  attack  by 
various  insects  and  diseases. 

The  boll  weevil. — The  boll  weevil  is  said  to  be  the 
most  harmful  insect  known  to  agriculture  in  this  country. 
It  came  to  the  United  States  from  Mexico  about  1892,  first 
beginning  its  ravages  in  Texas.  Since  that  time  it  has 
spread  over  most  of  the  cotton  area,  and  caused  the  loss 
of  millions  of  dollars  to  cotton  growers. 

Life  history  of  the  boll  weevil. — The  worst  enemy 
of  cotton  is  the  boll  weevil.  In  the  spring  and  through- 
out the  fruiting  season  eggs  are  laid  in  small  holes  made 
by  the  female  in  the  cotton  square  or  boll.  In  about  three 
days  the  Qgg  hatches  into  a  grub,  which  at  once  begins  feed- 


COTTON 


115 


THE  BOLL  WEEVIL  AND  ITS  STAGES 


Fig.  1,  Adult  boll  weevil,  viewed  from  above;  a,  two  teetb  on  fore 
femur;  fig.  2,  adult  weevil,  side  view;  fig.  3,  egg  of  weevil;  fig.  4, 
grub  about  two  days  old;  fig.  5,  grub  at  entrance  to  second  stage 
after  shedding  first  skin,  about  three  days  old;  fig.  6,  grub  fully 
grown,  about  ten  days  from  egg;  fig.  7,  transformation  or  pupal 
stage,  side  view,  snout,  legs  and  wings  forming;  fig.  8,  pupal  stage, 
front  view  of  fig.  7.  Figs.  1,  2,  6,  7  and  8  enlarged  about  ten  diam- 
eters; figs.  3,  4  and  5  enlarged  about  twenty  diameters. 


116  AGRICULTURE 

ing  on  the  plant.  In  a  little  more  than  a  week  the  grub 
passes  into  the  pupa  stage,  which  lasts  from  three  to  five 
days,  when  the  second  generation  of  adult,  the  beetle,  is 
developed.  It  requires  from  two  to  three  weeks  for  the 
weevil  to  develop  from  egg  to  adult,  hence  a  number  of 
generations  are  produced  in  a  season.  The  offspring  of  a 
single  pair  in  a  season  may  exceed  12,000,000  individuals. 

Fighting  the  boll  weevil. — Since  the  weevil  life  is 
spent  and  damage  done  chiefly  in  the  square  or  boll,  meth- 
ods of  poisoning  and  picking  have  not  proved  very  satis- 
factory. The  most  important  step  in  the  destruction  of 
the  weevil  is  to  kill  as  large  a  proportion  of  them  by  ex- 
posure during  the  winter  months  as  possible.  In  order  to 
do  this  the  fields  should  be  cleaned  of  all  of  the  stalks  and 
rubbish  and  the  seed  bed  prepared  in  the  early  fall.  Cot- 
ton stalks  should  be  thoroughly  uprooted  and  if  possible 
plowed  under  just  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  picked.  Then 
the  ground  should  be  well  dragged  and  packed  close  so  as 
to  shut  all  crevices  through  which  the  beetle  might  come 
to  the  surface.  Rubbish  left  upon  the  ground  during  the 
winter  months  will  be  sure  to  furnish  a  safe  hiding-place 
and   protection   for   the   weevil,   hence   should   be   burned. 

The  next  most  important  step  is  the  planting  of  an  early 
variety  in  order  to  get  the  crop  well  out  of  the  way  of  the 
larger  broods  of  weevils.  Through  a  system  of  seed  se- 
lection it  is  possible  to  develop  a  plant  that  is  very  strongly 
resistant  to  the  attacks  of  the  boll  weevil. 

Since  the  weevils  live  mainly  upon  the  cotton  boll  and 
the  cotton  plant,  it  is  easy  to  understand  why  it  is  impor- 
tant to  rotate  the  crop.  Cotton  should  not  be  grown  on 
the  same  piece  of  ground  in  bo!i  weevil  territory  a  second 
year.  This  plan,  if  followed  out,  is  also  bound  to  bring 
about  the  diversification  of  farming  so  greatly  needed  in 
the  South,    The  weevils  can  not  possibly  live  in  the  soil  for 


COTTON  117 

more  than  twelve  months  without  direct  contact  with  a 
source  of  food  supply,  hence  the  effectiveness  of  a  three-, 
four-  and  five-year  rotation  having  the  cotton  field  for  each 
successive  year  sufficiently  separated  so  as  not  to  make  it 
easy  for  the  weevil  to  pass  from  one  field  to  the  other. 
Cotton  seed  should  be  treated  with  carbon  bisulphide  in 
order  to  make  sure  that  no  weevils  are  carried  into  new 
soil. 

The  cotton  anthracnose  or  boll  rot. — Next  to  the  boll 
weevil,  this  is  considered  one  of  the  destructive  enemies  to 
cotton  production.  It  is  usually  referred  to  as  boll  rot  and 
is  a  disease  caused  by  fungous  growth  which  attacks  the 
seedlings,  the  stems,  and  the  boll  pedicels.  It  causes  the 
loss  of  many  millions  of  dollars  every  year.  It  develops 
readily  in  hot  muggy  weather  and  where  the  planting  has 
been  close.  The  best  way  to  prevent  this  disease  is  by 
careful  seed  selection.  Healthy  seed  is  very  important  and 
the  systematic  rotation  of  crops  necessary  as  the  disease 
spores  will  live  upon  dead  bolls  from  year  to  year.  It  is 
also  possible  to  develop  through  selection  of  seed  from 
healthy  stalks  a  plant  quite  resistant  to  the  disease. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  To  what  extent  does  the  boll  weevil  work  in  your 
region?  When  did  it  first  appear?  Is  it  increasing  or 
decreasing?     Ask  your  father  about  these  questions. 

2.  What  other  enemies  damage  the  cotton  crop  in  your 
vicinity?  What  measures  are  being  followed  to  eradicate 
the  evil? 

3.  Make  a  collection  of  all  the  insect  enemies  of  cot- 
ton available  in  your  vicinity,  and  learn  to  identify  each. 

4.  Work  out  a  crop  rotation  based  on  cotton,  corn,  or 
whatever  is  the  staple  crop  of  your  region. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  different  uses  which  the  parts 
of  the  cotton  plant  serve. 


118  AGRICULTURE 

6.  Make  a  map  of  the  cotton  states  and  show  where 
the  boll  weevil  started  to  attack  cotton  in  Texas,  and  indi- 
cate upon  the  map  the  progress  of  the  boll  weevil  from  year 
to  year  up  to  the  present  time.  What  states  are  not  now 
infested  with  this  plant  enemy? 

4.     Demonstrations 

1.  Demonstrate  the  proper  method  of  selecting  cotton 
seed  in  the  field. 

2.  Demonstrate  how  the  lint  was  removed  from  the 
seed  before  the  time  of  the  cotton  gin. 

3.  Demonstrate  how  to  pick  cotton  properly. 

4.  Show  the  difference  between  the  long  and  the  short 
staple  cotton  fiber. 

5.  Demonstrate  the  proper  method  of  treating  the  seed 
before  planting. 

5.  P^ay  Contests 

1.  Judging  of  cotton  bolls,  cotton  stalks,  and  cotton 
seed  for  seed  variety. 

2.  Cotton  picking  contest  in  the  field. 

3.  Contest  to  show  how  to  determine  the  types  and 
varieties  of  cotton. 

4.  Contest  in  the  judging  of  different  kinds  of  cloth 
made  with  all  or  a  part  of  cotton  fiber.  A  large  number 
of  samples  of  different  colors,  texture,  weave,  etc.,  should 
be  furnished  from  which  this  work  can  be  done. 

5.  Cotton  drawing  contest. 

6.  Essay  writing  contest. 

6.  Cotton  Clubs 

Boys'  and  girls'  cotton  clubs  should  be  organized 
throughout  the  entire  cotton  belt.  Consult  the  state  lead- 
er in  charge  of  club  work  and  obtain  his  help,  follow-up 


COTTON  119 

instruction,    and    direction.     The    following    will    prove    a 
good  basis  of  award  for  such  a  club  project: 

1.  Yield    20 

2.  Net  profit  on  investment 20 

3.  Exhibit  of  products,  including  both  market  and  seed 
samples  20 

4.  Crop  records  and  story  of  year's  work 20 

5.  Cultural  methods  practised  as  evidenced  by  soil  building, 
seed  selection  and  work  to  defeat  the  boll  weevil  and 
other  insects  and  plant  diseases  of  the  plant 20 

Total  score  . 100 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  POTATO 

THE  common  white,  or  Irish,  potato  is  a  native  of  South 
America.  It  was  brought  to  North  America  by  the 
early  Spanish  settlers.  Potatoes  are  now  so  important  an 
article  of  food  in  almost  every  country  that  little  more  than 
one-twentieth  of  the  world's  supply  is  grown  in  the  United 
States. 

1.     The  Potato  Plant 

Secure,  if  possible,  a  complete  potato  plant,  including 
the  roots  and  tubers.  What  is  the  shape  of  the  stem  ?  The 
nature  of  branching?  The  type  of  leaves?  The  flowers? 
Do  potatoes  bear  seed?  Are  potatoes  raised  from  seed? 
Why  not  plant  potato  seed  instead  of  the  tubers?  Are 
the  tubers  a  part  of  the  root  system,  or  do  the  roots  only 
bear  the  tubers  as  the  stems  of  tomatoes  bear  the  fruit? 
Compare  a  potato  plant  and  a  tomato  plant. 

The  plant. — The  potato  plant  varies  from  one  and 
one-half  to  five  feet  in  height,  though  it  does  not  show 
this  great  a  height  owing  to  its  spreading  habits  of 
growth.  The  terminal  clusters  of  flowers  bear  seeds, 
from  which  new  varieties  are  often  developed.  For 
practical  purposes  the  plant  is  reproduced  from  the  tu- 
bers. 

Though  both  plant  and  roots  die  upon  the  ripening  of 
the  seed  and  tubers,  the  potato  is  a  perennial  by  means  of 
the  tuber  from  which  the  plant  is  reproduced.  Since  the 
tubers  are  destroyed  by  freezing,  they  should  be  harvested 

120 


THE  POTATO  121 

before  frost.  Potatoes  are  annuals  in  all  regions  where 
the  soil  freezes  during  the  winter. 

Tubers. — Examine  a  tuber.  Note  the  distribution  of 
the  *'eyes."  These  contain  the  buds  from  which  the  new 
plants  are  produced.  The  end  at  which  they  are  thickest 
is  called  the  "seed"  end,  and  the  other  the  "stem"  end. 
At  which  end  is  the  tuber  attached  to  the  roots  of  the 
plant?  Are  some  potatoes  more  deeply  indented  at  the 
eyes,  and  more  irregular  in  shape  than  others?  Which  are 
more  desirable  for  cooking?  Why?  Which  have  the  bet- 
ter market  demand  ? 

Though  there  are  hundreds  of  wild  plants  belonging  to 
the  same  genus  as  potatoes,  comparatively  few  of  these  are 
known  as  cultivated  plants.  Among  the  most  closely  related 
cultivated  plants  are  the  tomato  and  tobacco,  which  belong 
to  the  same  family;  the  dasheen  is  grown  in  the  South 
as  a  substitute  for  potatoes. 

2.    Potatoes  as  a  Farm  Crop 

After  corn,  cotton,  hay,  wheat  and  oats,  potatoes  are  one 
of  our  most  valuable  crops.  They  are  raised  in  every  state, 
though  the  chief  potato  region  consists  of  ten  or  fifteen 
northern  states  reaching  from  the  Missouri  River  eastward 
to  the  Atlantic.  More  than  three  million  acres  are  planted 
with  potatoes  in  the  United  States  each  year.  The  annual 
crop  is  nearly  three  hundred  and  fifty  million  bushels,  or 
about  four  bushels  to  every  inhabitant. 

The  potato  region. — The  following  are  the  fifteen 
states  which,  according  to  federal  statistics,  produced  the 
largest  amount  of  potatoes  for  the  period  1902-1911,  to- 
gether with  the  percentage  of  the  entire  crop  of  the  United 
States  grown  by  each : 


122 


AGRICULTURE 


New  York 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Maine 

Pennsylvania 

Minnesota 

Ohio 

Iowa 

Illinois 

California 

Colorado 

New  Jersey 

Washington 

Indiana 

Nebraska 

All  others 


12.02% 


972% 


9.72% 
7.60% 
6.47% 


.    5.71^ 
4.66% 


-  3.93% 

-  3.39% 
2.71% 
2.33% 
2.30% 
2.18% 
2.15%' 
1.15% 


24.35  %» 


3.     Raising  the  Crop 

The  soil. — Potatoes  thrive  best  in  a  rich  sandy  loam 
containing  a  good  supply  of  humus.  Hard  stiff  soils  or 
heavy  clay  are  not  well  adapted  to  potato  raising.  The 
best  soil  on  the  farm  should  be  devoted  to  the  potato  field, 
both  because  potatoes  demand  a  better  soil  than  most  other 
crops,  and  because  the  value  of  potatoes  per  acre  is  greater 
than  almost  any  other  field  crop. 

Ground  that  has  recently  raised  clover,  alfalfa  or  some 
other  legume  is  especially  suited  to  potatoes.  While  barn- 
yard manure  will  greatly  increase  the  yield,  it  will  also  favor 
the  ravages  of  scab  and  other  potato  diseases,  and  so  lower 
the  quality  of  the  crop.  It  is  usually  a  mistake  to  plant 
potatoes  on  a  freshly  manured  field.  If  manure  is  used, 
it  is  better  to  follow  a  heavy  manuring  with  a  crop  of 
corn,  and  then  plant  potatoes  for  the  second  year  crop. 

Green  manuring,  that  is,  the  plowing  under  of  green 
crops  such  as  clover  or  alfalfa,  will  add  greatly  to  the 
yield.     If  the  sod  is  old,  it  is  usually  better  to  grow  one 


THE  POTATO  123 

crop  of  corn  before  potatoes  are  planted  on  the  field.  Com- 
mercial fertilizers  can  be  used  to  advantage  for  potatoes  on 
most  soils. 

The  seed  bed. — Potatoes  should  have  an  especially 
well  prepared  seed  bed.  The  plowing  should  be  deeper  than 
for  most  crops,  since  the  seed  is  planted  deeper  and  loose 
soil  must  be  had  for  the  roots  and  tubers.  In  average  soils 
the  plow  should  be  set  to  a  depth  of  not  less  than  eight 
inches. 

The  seed  bed  must  be  well  pulverized  and  thoroughly 
packed.  Usually  not  less  than  four  harrowings  and  disk- 
ings  are  required  for  the  best  results.  Experiments  have 
shown  that  the  difference  in  yield  caused  by  harrowing  part 
of  a  field  four  times  and  the  remainder  of  it  but  twice  may 
be  as  much  as  twenty  per  cent,  of  the  crop  in  favor  of  the 
better  preparation. 

The  planting. — Potatoes  should  be  planted  not  less 
than  four  inches  deep.  If  less  than  this  depth  it  will  not 
give  room  for  the  tubers  to  grow  without  protruding  from 
the  ground.  This  is  sure  to  result  in  injury  from  sunburn. 
Most  potato  growers  drill  the  seed,  dropping  single  pieces 
of  seed  from  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  apart  in  the  row.  In 
some  regions  potatoes  are  planted  in  cross  rows  like  corn, 
with  three  cuts  of  seed  to  the  hill. 

The  date  for  planting  differs  in  various  regions,  but 
the  greater  part  of  the  crop  in  the  northern  states  is  planted 
during  the  last  half  of  May.  From  twelve  to  twenty  bushels 
of  seed  are  required  for  an  acre,  depending  on  how  the 
tubers  are  cut  for  planting.  Where  crops  of  any  consider- 
able size  are  raised,  the  dropping  is  usually  done  with  a 
machine  or  planter,  some  makes  of  which  are  arranged  to 
distribute  commercial  fertilizer  at  the  same  time. 

Cultivating  the  crop. — Potatoes  demand  good  cultiva- 
tion.    Harrowing  should  be  done  before  the  potatoes  are 


124  AGRICULTURE 

up.  From  one  to  two  harrowings  may  be  given  after  the 
plants  appear.  Throughout  the  growing  season  a  fine  soil 
mulch  should  at  all  times  be  maintained  by  means  of  fre- 
quent cultivation.  Especially  after  a  rain  should  the  soil 
crust  be  broken.  The  cultivation  should  be  rather  shallow, 
and  potatoes  should  not  be  hilled  up  as  is  so  often  done. 

Harvesting  the  crop. — When  the  vines  have  died  the 
potatoes  have  stopped  growing  and  the  crop  is  ready  to 
harvest.  In  the  case  of  small  fields,  potatoes  are  often  har- 
vested by  being  plowed  out  with  an  ordinary  plow,  the 
tubers  being  picked  up  by  hand,  and  the  field  afterward 
harrowed  to  uncover  any  that  have  been  missed. 

In  regions  where  potatoes  are  grown  in  large  quanti- 
ties the  digging  is  done  with  machines,  several  kinds  of 
which  are  now  on  the  market.  The  average  machine  will 
turn  out  about  three  acres  in  a  day,  and  will  require  from 
five  to  ten  pickers  to  keep  up  with  it. 

Storing  the  crop. — In  order  to  keep  well,  potatoes 
must  be  stored  in  a  cool  place.  The  house  cellar  is  usu- 
ally too  warm  for  them,  and  they  also  give  out  an  un- 
pleasant odor  that  permeates  the  house.  A  common  type 
of  vegetable  cellar  to  be  found  on  many  farms  is  built 
with  concrete  or  stone  walls,  the  excavation  being  made  on 
a  side  hill.  It  is  covered  with  a  shingle  roof,  and  has  a 
board  floor  on  a  level  with  the  ground  at  the  upper  side, 
thus  making  an  excellent  tool  and  machinery  house  over 
the  space  used  for  vegetables. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  What  is  the  acreage  of  potatoes  raised  on  your 
home  farm  this  season?  If  you  are  not  certain,  go  out  and 
measure  the  field  carefully.  Compare  the  acreage  of  each 
of  the  farms  represented  in  the  school. 

2.  What  is  the  yield  of  your  potatoes  per  acre?    How 


THE  POTATO  125 

does  this  compare  with  the  other  farms  of  your  vicinity? 
With  the  state?     With  the  United  States? 

3.  Select  two  medium-sized  potatoes,  one  regular, 
smooth  and  with  shallow  eyes,  and  the  other  irregular  and 
with  deep-set  eyes.  Weigh  each.  Pare  both  potatoes,  as 
nearly  the  same  as  possible.  Now  weigh  the  skins,  also 
the  pared  tubers.  Which  lost  the  larger  percentage  in 
paring?  Which  is  easier  to  pare?  Which  looks  more 
pleasing  for  the  table?  Which  w^ould  be  the  better  to 
select  for  seed?     Which  one  is  better  for  the  market? 

4.  Bring  a  sample  of  as  many  different  varieties  of 
tubers  as  can  be  found  in  your  neighborhood.  Learn  to 
recognize  the  chief  breed  characteristics  so  as  to  identify 
the  different  varieties,  such  as  Early  Rose,  Bliss  Triumph, 
Early  Ohio,  Gold  Coin,  Burbank,  Rural  New  Yorker, 
Walter  Raleigh.  What  are  the  principal  early  varieties? 
Late  varieties  ?  Do  you  find  mixtures  in  which  it  is  impos- 
sible to  determine  the  varieties? 

4.     Improvement  Through  Selection  of  Seed 

One  of  the  first  factors  in  successful  potato  growing  is 
the  securing  of  good  seed.  Without  this,  fertility  of  soil 
and  careful  cultivation  are  largely  wasted. 

Good  seed  will  possess  the  following  qualities:  It  must 
(1)  be  pure,  that  is,  free  from  mixtures  of  varieties;  (2) 
be  taken  from  productive  plants,  or  ''hill  selected" ;  (3)  be 
uniform  in  size  and  shape;  (4)  be  firm  and  sound,  not 
shrunken  or  decayed;  (5)  be  entirely  free  from  disease; 
(6)  not  wholly  mature  when  harvested;  (7)  have  sprouts 
just  showing  at  time  of  planting. 

It  has  been  estimated  by  experts  that  attention  to  these 
points  would  add  at  least  ten  per  cent,  to  the  potato  crop 
each  year.  This  would  mean  an  increase  of  nearly  thirty- 
five  million  bushels,  and  worth  about  $21,000,000  annually. 

Pure  seed. — Mixed  varieties  present  several  disad- 
vantages in  potato  growing.     The  crop   will  not  mature 


126  AGRICULTURE 

evenly.  Thus,  when  the  earHer  variety  has  ripened  and 
is  ready  for  the  market  or  table,  the  later  one  will  have 
the  potatoes  just  setting,  and  unfit  for  use.  Mixed  vari- 
eties do  not  cook  evenly,  and  when  baked  or  broiled  to- 
gether some  will  be  overdone  before  others  have  softened. 
General  mixture  of  varieties  in  potatoes  as  in  other  crops 
tends  to  degeneration  and  running  out  of  the  strain  or 
breed. 

Seed  from  productive  plants. — Seed  should  be  taken 
only  from  the  strongest  and  most  productive  plants,  no 
matter  what  the  variety.  This  can  not  be  accomplished  by 
selecting  seed  from  the  potato  bin,  any  more  than  the  best 
seed  corn  can  be  selected  from  the  crib  or  wagon.  For  a 
certain  tuber  may  itself  be  of  good  size  and  look  promis- 
ing, but  have  come  from  a  plant  that  produced  but  one  or 
two  potatoes,  or  that  grew  only  one  tuber  of  fair  size, 
with  several  culls. 

One  of  the  most  successful  methods  of  developing  high- 
grade  seed  potatoes  is  what  is  called  the  tuber-unit  method. 
This  consists  of  selecting  from  the  seed  bin  a  quantity  of  the 
most  perfect  tubers,  each  to  weigh  from  six  to  eight  ounces. 
These  are  cut  for  planting  by  splitting  the  tuber  into  four 
quarters,  from  seed  end  to  stem  end. 

The  tuber-unit  method. — ^The  four  pieces  of  each  po- 
tato are  planted  in  succession  twelve  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
A  longer  space  is  left  between  the  sets  of  fours,  thus  mak- 
ing it  possible  to  watch  the  outcome  of  each  tuber  by  itself. 
Before  the  plants  begin  to  die,  careful  inspection  is  made, 
and  any  mixtures,  and  imperfect  or  weak  plants  are  marked 
for  rejection.  Only  the  most  promising  and  uniform  are  re- 
served for  the  selection  of  seed. 

When  the  crop  is  harvested,  each  set  of  four  is  dug  by 
itself.     A  further  selection  is  made  by  rejecting  the  total 


THE  POTATO 


127 


HWii  1,1.11    :■" 


10 


128      ■  AGRICULTURE 

product  if  any  one  of  the  four  plants  has  failed  to  pro- 
duce uniform,  desirable  tubers.  The  potatoes  produced  by 
each  set  of  four  selected  for  seed  are  put  into  separate  sacks 
and  kept  for  further  examination. 

Second  season  of  tuber-unit  planting. — Finally,  the 
contents  of  each  sack  are  inspected  for  the  weight  of  mar- 
ketable and  unmarketable  tubers,  and  other  desirable  qual- 
ities of  the  type.  From  each  of  the  four-plant  units  the 
best  ten  tubers  are  to  be  selected  for  the  next  year's  plant- 
ing. This  selected  seed  is  planted  the  following  year  in 
the  same  way  as  the  first  season,  thus  giving  forty  plants 
to  the  unit  instead  of  four.  The  product  from  the  best 
forty-hill  rows  is  kept  for.  seed  for  the  general  crop  for 
the  following  year.  By  thus  keeping  a  breeding  plat  for 
seed,  potatoes  can  be  greatly  improved,  and  the  yield  much 
increased. 

The  tuber-unit  method  can  be  rendered  even  more  ef- 
fective by  making  the  first  selection  from  the  field  instead 
,  of  the  potato  bin.     This  is  done  by  going  into  the  field 
before  the  vines  begin  to  die  and  marking  a  number  of 
,  the  most  vigorous  and  desirable  plants.     These  are  har- 
;  vested   separately   before  wholly  mature,   and   seed   taken 
from  the  best  hills. 

The  practise  of  planting  for  seed  the  small  and  unmar- 
ketable potato  culls  can  not  be  too  strongly  condemned.  It 
lessens  the  yield,  lowers  the  quality  of  the  crop  and  causes 
the  variety  to  deteriorate  or  "run  out." 

Cutting  seed  potatoes. — Whether  it  pays  better  to 
cut  potatoes  for  seed  or  plant  the  whole  tuber  has  been 
much  discussed.  It  is  believed  by  many  potato  growers 
that  under  average  conditions  the  yield  will  be  greater  when 
quarters  are  planted  than  when  pieces  with  single  eyes  are 
used,  and  that  halves  will  produce  more  than  quarters.     It 


THE  POTATO  129 

is  not  sure  that  whole  tubers  will  produce  a  larger  yield 
than  halves.  The  weight  of  experience  seems  to  favor 
planting  halves. 

Immature  seed. — For  vitality,  high  yield  and  good 
market  qualities,  potatoes  intended  for  seed  should  be  har- 
vested before  entirely  ripe  (by  hill  selection)  ;  that  is,  be- 
fore the  vines  have  died.  Many  experiments  have  shown 
that  immature  seed  will  produce  a  considerably  higher  yield 
than  seed  allowed  to  ripen  before  digging. 

Home-grown  seed  not  always  best. — Contrary  to  the 
rule  with  most  farm  crops,  seed  brought  from  another 
region  often  produces  a  better  crop  of  potatoes  than  home- 
grown seed.  Especially  is  this  true  when  northern  grown 
potatoes  are  taken  farther  south.  Not  only  is  the  yield 
increased,  but  the  time  required  for  maturing  is  shortened 
by  securing  seed  from  colder  regions.  Great  care  should 
be  taken  in  importing  seed  tubers  not  to  introduce  new 
forms  of  potato  diseases. 

5.     Potato  Enemies 

Potatoes  have  many  enemies,  and  the  number  seems  to 
be  increasing,  owing  to  diseases  being  brought  in  from 
other  countries. 

Scab. — Scab  is  one  of  the  most  wide-spread  and  de- 
structive of  potato  diseases.  It  causes  a  rough,  pitted, 
scabby  condition  which  may  attack  the  tuber  in  patches, 
or  extend  over  the  entire  surface.  Whether  scab  is  caused 
by  a  fungous  growth  or  a  species  of  soil  bacteria  is  not 
certain.  It  is  fortunate,  however,  that  a  very  simple  and 
effective  remedy  is  known.  This  consists  in  treating  seed 
potatoes  before  planting. 

There  are  several  mixtures  used  for  this  purpose;  the 
cheapest  and  most  easily  applied  is  a   formalin   solution. 


130  AGRICULTURE 

This  IS  prepared  by  mixing  one  pint  of  formalin  with 
thirty  gallons  of  water.  The  seed  potatoes  are  soaked 
in  the  solution  for  two  hours,  and  then  planted  without 
allowing  them  to  come  into  contact  with  bags  or  utensils 
in  which  scabby  potatoes  have  been  kept. 

Leaf,  or  early  blight. — Leaf  blight  is  another  t-ommon 
potato  disease.  It  attacks  the  leaves  and  stems,  first  show- 
ing about  the  time  that  the  tubers  begin  to  form.  Its  pres- 
ence may  be  detected  by  the  presence  of  grayish  brown 
spots  on  the  leaves,  the  part  of  the  leaf  attacked  soon  be- 
coming hard  and  brittle.  Within  three  or  four  weeks  the 
leaves  are  all  killed,  and  the  stem  is  also  affected.  The  tubers 
grow  but  little  after  the  leaves  are  first  attacked;  hence 
the  crop  is  ruined  unless  the  blight  can  be  checked. 

The  ravages  of  leaf  blight  can  be  almost  if  not  wholly 
prevented  by  spraying  the  plants  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture 
(see  page  249).  This  solution  is  applied  with  a  spraying 
machine  at  the  rate  of  about  fifty  gallons  to  the  acre.  From 
three  to  five  sprayings  during  the  season  are  required  when 
leaf  blight  threatens.  One  pound  of  Paris  green  to  the 
acre  at  the  first  spraying,  and  the  same  amount  later  in  the 
season  will  also  destroy  the  potato  beetles,  which  often  prove 
such  a  pest. 

Late  blight,  or  rot. — The  blotches  and  blackish 
streaks  often  seen  running  through  tubers  are  caused  by 
late  blight,  or  potato  rot.  This  disease  first  attacks  the 
leaves  and  stems,  causing  them  to  soften  and  decay,  pro- 
ducing a  bad  smell.  Late  blight  often  appears  suddenly, 
and  spreads  through  a  field  with  great  rapidity.  A  green, 
healthy-looking  field  may  turn  almost  black  in  a  day  or  two. 

The  treatment  for  late  blight  is  the  same  as  for  leaf 
blight,  and  should  never  be  neglected  in  regions  where 
blight  is  common.  .  It  is  far  better  to  begin  the  spraying 


THE  POTATO  131 

before  either  form  of  blight  begins  to  appear,  for  this  is  the 
easiest  time  to  prevent  it. 

1.  Select  tubers  of  the  same  size  from  different  vari- 
eties, such  as  Early  Rose  and  Rural  New  Yorkers.  At 
your  homes  try  boiling  them  together.  Do  they  cook  in 
the  same  time?    Try  baking,  frying,  etc. 

2.  How  deep  does  your  father  plow  the  ground  for  po- 
tatoes? How  deep  does  he  plant?  Does  he  use  commer- 
cial fertilizers?  Does  he  manure  the  field  for  potatoes?  If 
so,  is  the  crop  scabby? 

3.  What  plan  is  used  in  selecting  seed  for  your  potato 
crop?  Are  culls  ever  used  for  seed?  Is  there  any  more 
reason  in  using  small  potatoes  for  seed  than  in  taking  your 
seed  corn  from  nubbins? 

4.  Suppose  that  seed  potatoes  are  seventy-five  cents  a 
bushel,  and  that  when  quartered  twelve  bushels  are  re- 
quired to  plant  an  acre;  also  suppose  that  by  planting 
halves  instead  of  quarters  the  yield  is  increased  twenty 
bushels  per  acre,  and  that  the  new  crop  sells  at  sixty  cents 
a  bushel.  Which  way  of  cutting  seed  is  best,  and  by  how 
much  an  acre? 

5.  Bring  samples  of  potatoes  affected  by  scab;  by  rot. 
Study  the  effects  of  each  on  the  tuber.  Secure  if  possible 
samples  of  plants  affected  by  blight,  and  learn  to  identify 
the  disease.  What  is  the  most  troublesome  potato  disease 
in  your  region?    What  is  the  remedy? 

6.  After  talking  with  your  father  about  it,  itemize 
the  cost  of  raising  an  acre  of  potatoes.  Compare  this  with 
the  cost  of  producing  an  acre  of  corn ;  an  acre  of  wheat  or 
oats.  Now,  taking  the  average  yield  of  each  crop,  com- 
pare the  profit  of  potato  raising  with  that  of  other  crops. 
Would  it  not  be  possible  to  double  the  yield  of  potatoes  per 
acre  in  your  region  ?    How  would  you  go  at  it  ? 

6.     Potato  Demonstrations 

1.  Demonstrate  how  to  select  seed  potatoes  from  the 
hill. 

2.  How  to  prepare  seed  potatoes  by  cutting  for  seed. 


132 


AGRICULTURE 


An  Iowa  potato  club  boy  and  a  part  of  his  crop. 


Club  boy,  and  prize  seed  potatoes,  sprouted  enough  for  plant- 
ing. 


THE  POTATO  '  133 

3.  How  to  manufacture  potato  starch  out  of  culls  and 
injured  tubers.     (See  recipe,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

4.  How  to  grade  and  crate  potatoes. 

5.  How  to  prepare  potatoes  in  various  ways  for  use 
in  the  home. 

7.  Potato  Play  Contests 

1.  Potato  race. 

2.  Potato  paring  contest,  based  on  time,  skill  and 
weight  of  peeling,  using  twelve  uniform  tubers. 

3.  Potato  judging  contest. 

4.  Variety  naming  contest. 

5.  Oral  recipe  contest.  How  to  use  the  potato  for  the 
home. 

8.  Potato  Club  Projects 

One  of  the  most  interesting  field  or  garden  crop  projects 
is  in  connection  with  the  production  and  management  of 
a  plat  of  potatoes.  This  can  be  taken  up  uniformly  by 
both  boys  and  girls,  using  not  less  than  one-eighth  acre  as 
a  club  plat  basis  per  member. 

The  club  work. — The  study  and  practise  in  the  work 
are  to  be  based  on  the  entire  management  of  the  club 
plat,  including  treatment  for  diseases  and  insects,  grad- 
ing, crating,  marketing,  manufacturing  of  potato  starch, 
study  of  the  life  history  and  the  relation  of  the  potato 
to  the  various  activities  and  studies  of  the  schoolroom. 

Club  festival. — A  potato  club  festival,  covering  all  the 
interests  of  potato  culture  in  the  community,  with  the  ex- 
hibits of  both  fresh  and  cooked  products,  lectures  on  potato 
culture,  etc.,  can  be  made  one  of  the  big  events  of  the  fall 
term,  to  which  all  the  patrons  of  the  school  can  be  invited. 

The  award. — The  basis  of  award  for  both  school 
credit  and  prizes  may  be  as  follows: 


134  AGRICULTURE 

1.  Yield    30 

2.  Net  profit  on  investment 30 

3     Exhibit  of  products  (fresh  and  cooked) 20 

4.     Crop   report  and   story 20 

Total    Score 100 


CHAPTER  IX 
TOBACCO  CULTURE 

FOUR  of  the  leading  agricultural  plants  have  been  given 
to  the  world  by  the  Americas.  They  are  the  white 
potato,  the  sweet  potato,  corn  and  tobacco.  The  Indians 
were  probably  the  first  users  of  tobacco.  They  used  it  for 
chewing  and  smoking  as  early  as  the  sixteenth  century. 

1.     The  Tobacco  Region 

Soil  and  climate. — Tobacco  may  be  successfully 
grown  in  all  latitudes  in  the  United  States  from  Canada 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Yet  the  quality  and  flavor  of  the 
plants  are  so  greatly  affected  by  climate  and  soil  that  the 
crop  is  nearly  all  raised  in  a  relatively  small  area.  On  fertile 
clay  soil  the  tobacco  plant  grows  large  and  heavy  with  leaves 
rich  in  oil  or  gum  and  cures  dark  red  or  black.  In  light 
sandy  soil  the  same  strain  will  produce  thin  leaves,  fine  tex- 
ture, and  will  cure  yellow  or  mahogany  color,  hence  the  ne- 
cessity of  selecting  the  soil  carefully.  Kentucky  and  the 
states  bordering  upon  it  produce  more  than  half  of  our 
native  crop. 

The  tobacco  states. — Named  in  the  order  of  their 
importance,  the  twelve  leading  states  in  tobacco  production 
are:  Kentucky,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Tennessee, 
Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Wisconsin,  South  Caro- 
lina, Connecticut,  Maryland  and  Missouri.  This  territory 
grows  more  than  ninety-five  per  cent,  of  the  native  commer- 
cial crop. 

135 


136  AGRICULTURE 

2.     Uses  and  Classes  of  Tobacco 

In  accordance  with  the  use  to  which  it  is  put  tobacco 
may  roughly  be  divided  into  two  great  classes :  ( 1 )  cigar 
tobaccos,  and  (2)  tobaccos  for  other  lines  of  manufacture. 
Each  of  these  classes  has  several  types  or  varieties. 

Cigar  tobaccos. — A  cigar  consists  of  three  different 
parts,  wrapper,  or  the  outer  layer  of  tobacco  leaves ;  binder, 
or  the  second  layer ;  and  filler,  or  the  central  portion.  Each 
of  these  parts  requires  a  different  type  of  tobacco.  The 
tobacco  in  a  single  cigar  may  therefore  come  from  three 
widely  separated  regions. 

For  example,  the  Connecticut  valley  and  parts  of  Flori- 
da and  Georgia  are  the  principal  wrapper-leaf  sections  of 
the  United  States.  Wisconsin  and  Pennsylvania  produce 
chiefly  a  binder-leaf  type.  Certain  districts  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio  and  New  York,  and  small  areas  in  Florida, 
Georgia  and  Texas  grow  the  filler-leaf  types. 

Three  important  varieties  comprise  most  of  the  cigar 
tobaccos  grown  in  this  country.  These  are:  (1)  the 
Broadleaf,  or  Seedleaf,  group,  grown  chiefly  for  wrapper 
and  binder  purposes;  (2)  the  Havana  Seed  group,  a  wrap- 
per and  binder  variety,  though  grown  also  for  filler;  and 
(3)  the  Cuban  group,  grown  principally  in  southern  re- 
gions for  use  as  filler. 

Manufacturing  tobacco. — Kentucky  and  parts  of  ad- 
joining states  are  the  great  manufacturing  tobacco  region 
of  the  United  States.  Many  different  varieties  are  grown, 
chief  among  which  are  White  Biirley,  Maryland,  Oronoca 
and  Pryor. 

These  and  other  similar  strains  are  also  produced  in 
most  states  of  the  South. 


TOBACCO  CULTURE 


137 


3.     Raising  the  Crop 

Tobacco  requires  more  careful  cultivation  than  almost 
any  other  farm  crop.  This,  in  part,  is  because  the  plant 
is  very  sensitive  to  soil  and  climatic  conditions,  and  in  part 


A  typical   Connecticut   tobacco   field. 

because  the  flavor  is  afifected  by  the  soil  conditions  and  the 
care  given  the  plants. 

Soil  and  seed  bed. — Rapid  and  unhindered  grov^^th 
from  time  of  planting  to  maturity  is  necessary  to  secure  fine 
texture  and  good  flavor.  The  seed  bed  should  therefore 
be  worked  to  the  finest  tilth. 


138  AGRICULTURE 

Tobacco,  like  cotton  and  corn,  requires  a  rich  soil  and 
a  careful  rotation  of  crops.  A  free  use  of  fertilizer,  es- 
pecially nitrogen  and  potash,  is  necessary  for  the  best  re- 
sults. From  ten  to  twenty  tons  of  stable  manure  to  the  acre 
should  be  plowed  under,  preferably  in  the  fall  and  the 
ground  well  cultivated  in  the  spring  before  planting.  Com- 
mercial fertilizers  containing  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  po- 
tassium are  often  profitably  used  in  addition  to  manure. 
Most  tobacco  soils  also  require  the  application  of  lime,  not 
alone  to  improve  the  growth  of  the  plant,  but  also  to  bet- 
ter its  quality. 

Many  tobacco  growers  find  it  profitable  to  burn  the  seed 
bed  before  planting  the  crop.  This  is  usually  done  either 
(1)  by  shoveling  the  top  two  or  three  inches  of  soil  into  a 
specially  constructed  sheet-iron  box  heated  by  a  wood  fire 
and  moved  over  the  field;  or  (2)  by  the  application  of 
steam  heat  directed  to  the  surface  of  the  field  by  means 
of  apparatus  devised  for  the  purpose.  The  object  of  this 
heating  of  the  soil  is  to  kill  the  weeds  and  other  tobacco 
enemies  and  thereby  give  the  plants  a  better  chance  for 
free  growth. 

Seed  selection. — The  seed  from  the  tobacco  plant 
should  be  as  carefully  selected  from  the  mother  stalk  as  is 
the  cotton  or  seed  corn.  Seed  should  be  taken  from  the 
healthy  plants  with  well-shaped  leaves  free  from  suckers. 
The  proper  standard  of  a  plant  for  quality  and  high  pro- 
duction should  be  considered. 

Planting  and  cultivation. — Tobacco  plants  are  grown 
from  seed  planted  in  hotbeds  or  cold-frames.  The  plants 
are  transplanted  to  the  field  in  rows  about  three  and  one-half 
feet  apart.  The  transplanting  may  be  done  by  hand  or  with 
a  horse  machine.  Cultivation  should  begin  as  soon  as  the 
plants  have  started  to  grow  and  continue  as  long  as  the  size 
of  plants  will  permit.     The  first  cultivation  should  be  deep. 


TOBACCO  CULTURE 


139 


New  cigar  leaf,  Cooley  hybrid  plant. 


140 


AGRICULTURE 


and  the  later  ones  should  be  shallow  to  avoid  cutting  the 
roots  and  to  conserve  the  soil  moisture. 

Harvesting  the  crop. — Tobacco  is  harvested  by  one 
of  two  different  methods.  Either  (1)  the  entire  plant  is 
cut  off  near  the  ground  when  the  middle  leaves  are  ripe. 


Curing  tobacco  in  barn  on  a  large  Kentucky  plantation. 

allowed  to  wilt  for  a  time,  and  then  hung  under  cover  to 
cure;  or  (2)  several  pickings  of  leaves  are  made  by  be- 
ginning with  those  nearest  the  ground,  which  ripen  first, 
and  stripping  them  from  the  central  stalk.  When  this 
plan  is  followed  the  leaves  are  carried  to  the  curing  barn 
when  partly  wilted  and  hung  in  rows  to  dry.  Usually  five 
pickings  are  required  for  harvesting  the  entire  crop. 


TOBACCO  CULTURE  141 

4.    Insect  Enemies 

The  tobacco  plant  is  subject  to  fewer  enemies  than  most 
other  farm  crops,  yet  much  damage  at  times  resuhs  from 
the  ravages  of  certain  insects. 

The  tobacco  flea-beetle. — The  tobacco  flea-beetle  or 
**flea  bug"  is  widely  distributed  and  does  much  harm  to 
growing  toba;eco.  It  is  a  small  insect,  oval  in  shape  and 
reddish-brown  in  color.  The  beetles  usually  appear  in 
July,  beginning  their  attack  on  the  lower  leaves  and  grad- 
ually proceeding  to  the  upper.  The  leaves  upon  which  the 
beetles  have  fed  show  small  dry  spots  which  later  become 
holes  through  the  leaf.  As  the  leaf  is  the  valuable  part 
of  the  plant  it  is  evident  that  great  damage  may  be  done 
the  crop  by  these  pests. 

A  few  simple  remedies  are  effective  in  large  degree  in 
destroying  the  tobacco  flea-beetle.  First,  since  the  insect 
thrives  on  several  different  kinds  of  weeds,  such  as  the 
jimson  and  various  nightshades,  the  margins  of  the  field 
should  be  kept  clear  of  all  weeds  that  might  serve  to 
harbor  the  beetles.  Second,  a  few  clumps  of  such  weeds 
may  be  left  at  certain  places  about  the  field  to  attract  the 
insects  and  these  clumps  then  treated  with  arsenate  of 
lead  or  any  other  of  the  arsenical  sprays.  Third,  the  to- 
bacco plants  themselves  may  be  sprayed  with  similar 
poisons. 

The  tobacco  horn  worm  or  "hornblower." — This  in- 
sect, which  is  also  found  in  almost  every  part  of  the  to- 
bpicco  region,  frequently  causes  great  damage.  The  horn 
worm  is  the  larva,  or  caterpillar,  of  either  one  of  two  spe- 
cies of  sphinx  moths.  The  worm  is  from  two  to  three 
inches  in  length,  green  in  color,  with  the  horn,  or  tail,  end 
of  the  body  either  red  or  black,  depending  on  the  species 
to  which  it  belongs. 


142 


AGRICULTURE 


Small  farm  tobacco  curing  barn,  South  Carolina. 


„  SMI,?  •.         l--^^J^ 


The  row  to  row  variety  test  of  a  tobacco  experiment  station. 
North  Carolina. 


TOBACCO  CULTURE  143 

Since  the  horn  worm  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  the  plant, 
it  may  be  controlled  in  the  same  way  as  the  flea-beetle, 
by  the  use  of  arsenical  sprays.  Some  planters  depend  on 
hand  picking  of  the  worms  when  the  number  is  not  too 
great.  The  moths  from  which  the  caterpillar  comes  are 
sometimes  poisoned  by  placing  sweetened  cobalt  in  the 
flowers  of  the  jimson  weed  from  which  the  insect  sucks 
honey. 

Tobacco  bud  worms. — Two  different  species  of 
worms  attack  the  buds  of  growing  tobacco,  biting  holes  in 
the  young  leaves.  One  of  these,  called  the  true  bud  worm, 
occurs  frequently  in  southern  tobacco  regions.  The  moth 
from  which  the  caterpillar  comes  is  small  and  of  a  green- 
ish color.  The  other  species,  called  the  false  bud  worm, 
is  the  same  caterpillar  that  attacks  cotton,  corn,  tomatoes 
and  various  other  crops.  It  is  familiar  throughout  the 
South  as  the  cotton  boll  worm,  and  in  the  North  as  the 
corn  ear-worm. 

The  best  remedy  so  far  devised  for  these  pests  is  the 
arsenical  sprays  already  recommended.  Clean  culture  and 
freedom  from  weed  fringes  about  the  fields  will  also  tend 
to  reduce  their  number. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  If  tobacco  is  grown  in  your  region,  to  which  class 
does  it  belong,  cigar  or  manufacturing  tobacco?  What 
varieties  are  represented? 

2.  To  what  markets  is  the  crop  in  your  vicinity 
shipped?    At  what  price  does  it  sell? 

3.  Do  the  tobacco  growers  in  your  region  use  plenty 
of  fertilizer?  If  so,  what  kinds  are  used?  Is  Hme  or  rock 
phosphate  used?  Are  the  seed  beds  burned  before  plant- 
ing? 

4.  What  method  of  harvesting  is  used?  Is  the  drying 
accomplished  by  natural  air  currents  or  by  firing?  What 
is  meant  by  "drying  tobacco,  coming  in  case"? 

11 


144  AGRICULTURE 

5.  Cut  a  cigar  transversely  across  and  note  the  three 
parts  of  its  structure,  wrapper,  binder  and  filler.  Split  one 
of  the  pieces  longitudinally  and  study  the  parts. 

6.  Show  how  to  make  a  bookkeeping  record  of  rais- 
ing an  ^cre  of  tobacco,  including  all  the  expense  involved 
and  the  amount  received  for  the  crop. 

7.  In  what  way  can  tobacco  be  used  for  the  treatment 
of  insect  and  plant  diseases? 

5.     Demonstrations 

1.  Demonstrate  how  tobacco  should  be  planted. 

2.  Show  the  proper  method  of  transplanting. 

3.  Demonstrate  how  to  thin  and  hoe  the  plants. 

4.  Demonstrate  by  the  use  of  plants  how  they  should 
be  harvested  and  prepared  for  the  dryer. 

5.  Show  how  to  treat  the  tobacco  plant  for  wilt. 

6.  Show  how  the  cigar  is  made  from  the  different 
kinds  of  tobacco. 

7.  Demonstrate  how  to  select  seed  from  the  stalk. 

8.  Demonstrate  how  to  prevent  cross  pollenization  of 
the  tobacco  plant. 

Note:  Every  tobacco  grower  in  the  neighborhood  should 
be  induced  to  carry  on  a  series  of  tobacco  demonstrations  each 
season  under  direction  of  county  demonstration  agents  in  order 
to  convince  themselves  and  neighbors  as  to  what  constitutes 
good  practise  and  efficient  management  of  a  tobacco  plantation. 


CHAPTER  X 
SUGAR  FARMING 

SUGAR,  a  soluble  form  of  the  carbohydrates,  is  one  of  our 
most  important  foods.  It  has  great  nutritive  value,  is 
easily  digested,  and  is  palatable  to  nearly  every  one.  We 
consume  about  4,000,000  tons  a  year,  or  more  than  80 
pounds  for  each  person  in  the  United  States.  In  less  pros- 
perous nations  sugar  is  found  too  expensive  a  food,  and  a 
much  smaller  proportion  is  used.  Only  about  one-fourth  of 
the  sugar  required  for  home  consumption  is  grown  in  this 
country,  the  remainder  being  imported. 

There  are  five  principal  varieties  of  sugar  used:  cane 
sugar,  heet  sugar,  maple  sugar,  corn  sugar  and  sorghum. 
Cane  sugar  leads  both  in  the  amount  used,  and  in  the  num- 
ber of  grades  produced.  Most  of  the  finer  table  and  manu- 
facturing sugars  are  from  cane.  Beet  sugar  comes  next  in 
amount.  Maple  sugar  is  not  produced  in  large  amounts. 
Large  quantities  of  corn  sugar  and  sorghum  are  used  in  the 
form  of  sirup,  or  molasses.  Less  important  varieties  are 
grape  sugar,  from  starch ;  fruit  sugar,  from  fruits  and 
honey ;  malt  sugar,  -  from  malted  grains ;  and  milk  sugar 
from  the  milk  of  cows,  goats,  etc.  The  chemist  divides  all 
sugars  into  two  classes,  saccharose  and  glucose. 

1.     The  Sugar  Regions 

Nearly  every  state  grows  some  amount  of  one  of  the 
five  principal  kinds  of  sugar. 

Cane  sugar  region. — By  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
sugar  used  in  this  country  is  made  from  sugar  cane.     Only 

145 


146  AGRICULTURE 

a  small  proportion  of  what  we  require  is  produced  here, 
most  of  it  being  imported  from  the  West  Indies  and  other 
tropical  or  semi-tropical  regions.  Practically  all  our  home- 
grown cane  sugar  is  raised  in  the  following  states,  which 
are  named  in  the  order  of  the  amount  produced:  Louis- 
iana, Georgia,  Texas,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Florida,  South 
Carolina,  California,  North  Carolina.  Of  these  states, 
Louisiana  has  produced  more  than  twice  as  much  as  the 
other  eight  states  combined. 

Beet  sugar  region. — The  beet  sugar  region  is  far 
more  widely  distributed  than  the  cane  sugar  region.  The 
following  are  some  of  the  leading  beet  sugar  states :  Colo- 
rado, California,  Michigan,  Utah,  Idaho,  Wisconsin,  Mon- 
tana, Ohio,  Kansas,  Iowa  and  Nebraska.  This  wide  area 
indicates  that  sugar  beets  will  thrive  in  a  great  variety  of 
climates  and  soils. 

Sorghum  sugar  regions. — Sorghum  also  thrives  oyer 
a  wide  range  of  territory,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  following  leading  sorghum  producing 
states:  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Missouri,  Texas,  North 
Carolina,  Illinois,  Oklahoma,  Indiana,  Alabama,  Missis- 
sippi, Louisiana  and  Ohio. 

Maple  sugar  region. — The  leading  maple  sugar  states 
are  New  York,  Ohio  and  Vermont.  Pennsylvania,  Michi- 
gan and  Indiana  also  produce  considerable  quantities. 

2.    Producing  Cane  Sugar 

The  cane  sugar  plant,  which  grows  much  like  corn,  was 
originally  a  tropical  plant,  but  most  varieties  under  culti- 
vation will  thrive  best  in  a  semi-tropical  climate.  Some 
varieties  will  even  succeed  in  temperate  regions.  Terri- 
tories having  a  temperature  of  from  65°  to  90°  Fahrenheit 
during  midsummer  are  considered  best.  Under  good  condi- 
tions the  plants  will  grow  from  twelve  to  twenty  feet  high. 


SUGAR  FARMING  147 

Sugar  cane  was  first  introduced  into  Europe  by  the 
Moors.  It  was  known  as  the  "honey  bearing  Indian 
reed."  Plantations  were  later  established  in  Spain  and 
Sicily.  .  Spanish  sailors  later  carried  the  seed  to  the  Azores, 
Canaries,  West  Indies  and  other  islands.  From  these 
sources  the  plant  was  brought  to  America. 

Varieties  of  sugar  cane. — The  most  common  varie- 
ties grown  in  the  United  States  are  Louisiana  Purple, 
which  is  known  in  Georgia  as  Red  Cane;  Louisiana  Striped 
or  Ribbon  Cane;  a  strain  known  as  Z)-74,  and  another 
known  as  D-7S. 

Moisture. — Cane  sugar,  because  of  the  large  amount 
of  foliage,  requires  abundant  moisture  during  the  grow- 
ing season.  The  average  rainfall  should  be  from  two  to 
four  and  one-half  inches  per  month  during  the  period  of 
greatest  growth.  The  cane  may  be  successfully  grown  by 
irrigation,  as  it  is  capable  of  drawing  from  the  soil  practi- 
cally all  the  water  supply  necessary  for  its  development. 

Soil  requirements. — The  soil  requirements  of  the 
cane  sugar  plant  are  very  much  the  same  as  those  of  the 
sugar  beet,  corn,  potato  and  trucking  crops.  The  soil 
should  be  well  filled  with  humus,  light  and  well-drained. 
The  plant  requires  a  well-prepared  seed  bed  and  is  thought 
to  produce  the  largest  quantity  of  sugar  content  where  the 
soil  is  best  adapted  for  the  production  of  corn  and  heavy 
forage  crops.  The  cane  sugar  plant  resists  drought  better 
than  corn  and  is  sometimes  grown  successfully  in  the  semi- 
arid  land  of  Oklahoma,  Texas,  Kansas  and  Nebraska. 

Cultivation  and  management  of  crop. — The  cultiva- 
tion and  general  management  of  the  sdil  before  planting 
is  similar  to  that  required  for  successful  corn  production. 
After  the  seed  bed  has  been  thoroughly  prepared  by  deep 
plowing  and  subsoiling  where  possible,  the  soil  should  be 
pulverized  thoroughly,  and  a  fine  surface  mulch  should  be 


148  AGRICULTURE 

maintained  throughout  the  growing  season.  This  is  best 
done  by  shallow  cultivation,  and  harrowing.  The  crop 
should  be  kept  entirely  free  from  weeds  and  should  be 
thinned,  so  as  to  permit  the  proper  development  of  the  canes. 

Harvesting  and  manufacturing. — When  the  cane  is 
used  for  forage  purposes,  as  is  often  done,  it  is  usually 
cut  early  in  the  season,  when  it  has  attained  a  height  of 
about  three  or  four  feet.  It  can  be  fed  at  once,  or  put  into 
a  silo,  or  even  cured  in  the  field  as  hay  and  fed  during 
the  winter  months. 

When  used  for  sirup  or  sugar  the  cane  should  be  cut 
before  frost,  or  as  soon  as  the  heads-  are  past  the  milk 
stage  and  before  they  harden.  The  heads  or  tops  should 
be  cut  off  and  leaves  stripped  and  kept  for  forage  pur- 
poses. These  are  valuable  for  farm  stock  and  the  seed 
is  especially  prized  for  poultry.  For  seed  purposes  the 
best  heads  are  cut  when  nearly  ripe  and  hung  up  to  dry. 

After  the  tops  and  leaves  have  been  stripped,  the  canes 
are  cut  and  hauled  to  the  sugar  house  where  they  are  run 
several  times  through  crushers.  The  juices  extracted  from 
the  cane  are  strained,  allowed  to  settle  in  order  to  remove 
the  impurities,  and  then  evaporated  to  the  proper  consist- 
ency. If  used  as  sirup  the  juice  is  canned  in  tin,  if  used 
for  sugar  it  is  kept  in  form  of  sap  and  then  purified,  evap- 
orated and  refined,  finally  becoming  either  white,  granu- 
lated, brown,  or  open  kettle  sugar,  or  Nezv  Orleans  mo- 
lasses. 

3.     Growing  Sugar  Beets 

Under  right  conditions  of  climate  and  soil  and  with  a 
sugar  factory  near  at  hand  the  raising  of  sugar  beets  can 
be  made  a  very  profitable  industry. 

Soil. — Sugar  beets  grow  successfully  in  any  soil  that 
will  produce  a  good  crop  of  corn,  wheat,  potatoes,  or  other 


SUGAR  FARMING 


149 


150  AGRICULTURE 

common  crops.  New  soil,  so  favorable  for  most  crops,  is 
not  so  good  as  cropped  soil  for  sugar  beets,  especially  if 
the  soil  contains  much  decaying  vegetable  matter.  Beets 
are  a  good  reclaimer  of  run-down  soils,  and  may  some- 
times be  used  to  help  improve  worn  out  or  depleted  land. 

Climate  and  moisture. — As  far  as  temperature  alone 
is  concerned,  regions  having  an  average  of  70°  Fahrenheit 
for  June,  July  and  August  are  most  favorable  for  sugar 
beets. 

Sugar  beets  require  a  fair  amount  of  moisture.  This 
may  be  provided  (1)  by  rainfall  averaging  from  two  to 
four  inches  per  month  during  the  growing  season ;  (2)  by 
irrigation;  or  (3)  by  sub-surface  water  seeping  upward  to 
the  roots  through  soil  of  such  a  nature  as  to  favor  this 
method  of  irrigation. 

Sugar  beets  on  irrigated  land. — No  more  favorable 
conditions  for  raising  sugar  beets  can  be  found  than  on 
the  irrigated  lands  of  the  West.  Nor  can  a  more  profitable 
crop  be  discovered  for  many  semi-arid  regions  than  beets. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  one  million  acres  of  western 
irrigated  land  devoted  to  the  raising  of  sugar  beets  under 
intensive  cultivation  would  increase  our  sugar  crop  to  such 
an  extent  that  we  could  raise  all  we  need  instead  of  only 
twenty-five  per  cent,  of  it. 

Raising  the  crop. — Special  methods  are  required  for 
the  successful  raising  of  sugar  beets.  The  ground  should 
be  plowed  not  less  than  nine  inches  deep.  The  plow  should 
be  followed  furrow  by  furrow  with  a  subsoiler,  loosening 
the  soil  to  a  depth  of  six  or  eight  inches  and  more  if  possi- 
ble. The  weeds  must  be  kept  down,  as  beets  are  not  good 
fighters  of  such  enemies.  Frequent  cultivation  is  required 
to  maintain  a  loose  soil  and  a  fine  mulch  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  moisture. 


SUGAR  FARMING  151 

4.     Producing  Saccharine  Sorghum 

The  sorghums  comprise  a  wide  range  of  varieties,  which 
may  be  divided  into  two  great  groups,  ( 1 )  grain  sorghums ; 
and  (2)  saccharine  sorghums,  used  for  forage,  sirup  and 
sugar. 

Varieties  of  saccharine  sorghums. — There  are  seven 
important  saccharine  sorghums :  Sumac,  Amber,  Orange, 
Planter,  Gooseneck,  Honey  and  Sapling.  Of  these,  the 
Sumac  has  proved  the  best  for  southern  regions,  and  the 
Amber  for  northern  regions. 

The  Sumac  is  the  sweetest,  has  the  largest  supply  of 
leaves  and  yields  best  of  the  saccharine  varieties.  It  re- 
quires from  one  hundred  and  eight  to  one  hundred  and  four- 
teen days  to  mature  seed.  The  Amber  is  more  slender  of 
stem,  has  fewer  leaves,  and  matures  seed  in  from  ninety  to 
ninety-four  days. 

Climate  and  soil. — Sorghum  v^ill  grow  in  any  cli- 
mate and  soil  that  will  successfully  produce  com.  It 
roots  more  deeply  than  corn,  and  often  does  well  for  one 
or  two  crops  on  soil  too  much  exhausted  for  a  good  yield 
of  corn.  Sorghum  is,  however,  hard  on  the  soil,  since  it 
produces  so  large  an  amount  of  forage  and  grain.  Sorghum 
resists  drought  better  than  corn.  It  has  proved  successful 
in  southwestern  regions  too  dry  for  good  corn  production. 
The  methods  of  fertilizing  and  cultivating  suitable  for  corn 
are  practical   for  production. 

Harvesting  and  manufacturing. — Sweet  sorghum  used 
as  forage  may  be  cut  green  from  the  time  it  is  two  or  three 
feet  high  until  it  is  ripe,  and  fed  at  once  or  cured  for  hay. 
If  the  sorghum  is  to  be  used  for  sirup  or  sugar,  it  should 
be  cut  from  the  time  the  seeds  are  well  on  in  the  milk  stage 
until  they  are  hard.  The  crop  should  be  harvested  with- 
out frost. 


152 


AGRICULTURE 


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SUGAR  FARMING  153 

The  stalks  are  cut  about  six  inches  above  the  ground. 
The  seed  tops  are  cut  off  and  saved  for  forage.  The  canes 
are  run  through  a  roller  crusher  to  extract  the  juice,  which 
is  treated  much  the  same  as  the  juice  from  sugar  cane  in 
the  process  of  its  manufacture. 

5.     Producing  Maple  Sugar 

The  United  States  and  Canada  are  the  only  regions 
where  maple  sugar  is  made.  The  American  Indians  un- 
derstood the  art  of  making  sugar  from  maple  trees  before 
the  earliest  explorers  reached  this  continent. 

The  sugar  maple  region. — While  all  maple  trees 
have  sweet  sap,  only  a  few  varieties  produce  sugar  in  pay- 
ing quantities.  The  sugar  maple  stands  first  and  the  black 
fnaple  second  in  importance.  The  red  maple,  silver  maple 
and  Oregon  maple  produce  sugar  sap,  but  hardly  in  paying 
quantities. 

The  sugar  maple  is  spread  over  a  wide  area,  but  occurs 
in  large  enough  quantities  for  commercial  sugar  produc- 
tion only  in  New  England,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  the 
states  of  the  Ohio  Valley  and  around  the  Great  Lakes. 

Tapping  the  trees. — Tapping  should  be  done  as  early 
in  the  season  as  the  run  of  sap  begins.  Not  only  does  this 
insure  a  larger  quantity  of  sap,  but  the  first  runs  are  the 
sweetest.  The  time  of  tapping  varies  with  the  season  and 
locality,  usually  from  late  in  February  till  the  middle  of 
March. 

The  hole  bored  in  the  tree  should  be  from  ^  to  ^ 
inch  in  diameter,  and  from  1  ^  to  2  inches  deep.  It  should 
slant  slightly  upward  into  the  tree  so  that  the  sap  will 
easily  drain  out.  As  a  rule  only  one  tap  to  the  tree  should 
be  made.  Spouts,  preferably  of  metal,  are  fitted  into  the 
holes,  and  buckets  hung  from  the  spouts  to  collect  the  sap. 


154 


AGRICULTURE 


Making  the  sugar. — Once  collected,  the  sap  is  evapo- 
rated by  boiling  in  kettles,  tanks,  or  other  specially  adapted 
apparatus.  When  the  right  consistency  has  been  reached, 
the  sirup  is  poured  into  molds  and  allowed  to  cool.  It  is 
then  ready  for  the  market.     Maple  sugar  is  considered  a 


Tapping  maple  trees  in  Vermont.    Too  niany  taps. 


delicacy,  and  many  attempts  have  been  made  to  produce 
substitutes  as  acceptable  as  the  genuine  article.  Some  of 
these  have  been  so  successful  that  it  is  often  difficult  to  tell 
the  imitation  from  the  real.  One  authority  says  that  were 
all  the  maple  trees  cut  down  we  would  continue  to  have 
"maple  sirup"  on  the  market. 


SUGAR  FARMING  155 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Have  your  mother  help  estimate  the  amount  of 
sugar  consumed  in  your  home  in  a  year.  How  many  pounds 
to  the  person? 

2.  What  proportion  of  this  sugar  is  cane?  Beet?  Sor- 
ghum?    Corn?     Maple?     Where  is  each  produced? 

3.  Make  a  study  of  the  process  by  which  each  kind 
of  sugar  is  manufactured  and  write  an  account  of  it.  Join 
with  your  teacher  in  making  a  collection  of  samples  of 
sugars  in  different  stages  of   manufacture. 

4.  Draw  a  map  of  the  United  States  and  locate  the 
sugar  regions. 

5.  What  sugars  are  produced  in  your  region?  Could 
others  be  successfully  grown?  If  not,  is  the  trouble  in 
the  climate,  soil,  or  both?    Ask  your  father  about  this. 

6.     Sugar  Demonstrations 

1.  Demonstrate  how  to  test  sugar  beet,  cane,  maple 
and  sorghum  seeds,  for  vitality,  using  the  cloth  and  blotter 
tester. 

2.  Demonstrate  how  to  change  sugar  into  sirup  and 
sirup  into  sugar.     Explain  processes. 

3.  Demonstrate  by  the  use  of  lump  and  powdered  su- 
gar the  soil  capillarity  and  the  use  of  a  surface  mulch  for 
the  preservation  of  moisture. 

4.  Demonstrate  how  to  find  the  starch  and  sugar  con- 
tent of  a  sugar  cane  or  sugar  beet. 

5.  Demonstrate  how  to  tap  a  maple  tree,  including 
preparation  of  material,  tapping  tree,  hanging  container  in 
place,  and  closing  up  the  wound  after  tapping. 

7.     Sugar  Play  Contests 

1.  Sugar  variety  naming  contest. 

2.  Contest  in  sugar  making. 

3.  Contest  in  tapping  maple  trees. 


156  AGRICULTURE 

4.  Contest  in  the  making  of  wooden  taps  or  spouts  for 
trees. 

5.  Contest  in  candy  making,  products  to  be  judged 
on  exhibit  as  are  other  products. 

6.  Essay  writing  contest  on  sugar  production  and 
manufacture. 

8.     Sugar  Farming  Club  Projects 

Where  any  one  of  the  types  of  sugar  farming  discussed 
is  a  practical  industry  the  school  may  well  be  organized 
into  a  club  for  the  purpose  of  translating  the  theory  of  'the 
chapter  into  definite  practise  at  home.  If  the  club  be  organ- 
ized in  the  sugar  beet,  sugar  cane,  or  sorghum  cane,  the 
area  should  be  one  acre;  if  in  maple  sugar  production  it 
may  involve  the  setting  out  and  management  of  a  certain 
number  of  trees,  or  the  care  and  management  of  from  ten 
to  one  hundred  trees,  and  should  include  tapping;  also  the 
manufacture  and  sale  of  sugar  products.  The  maple  sugar 
club  project  and  tree  or  wood-lot  planting  work  will  make 
a  fine  combination.  The  basis  of  award  for  the  contest  in 
the  club  project  may  be  as  follows: 

1.  Yield  per  acre 3Q 

2.  Profit  on  investment 30 

3.  Exhibit  and  quality  of  products 20 

4.  Story  and  record  of  club  work 20 

Total   score   100 


CHAPTER  XI 
FORAGE  CROPS 

OUR  study  so  far  has  dealt  mostly  with  the  cereals — the 
crops  raised  chiefly  for  their  grain.  We  now  come  to 
study  the  distinct  types  of  forage  crops,  or  those  grown  for 
their  leaves  and  stems,  which  are  fed  to  stock.  Besides 
serving  them  as  food  for  animals,  certain  forage  crops  are 
ot  great  value  in  enriching  the  soil  and  causing  it  to  pro- 
duce larger  yields  of  cereals. 

When  the  forage  plants  are  fed  green  by  grazing,  we 
call  the  crop  pasture;  if  cut,  and  at  once  fed  green  without 
allowing  time  to  cure,  it  is  called  a  soiling  crop.  If  the  crop 
is  cut  and  allowed  to  cure  before  feeding  it,  it  is  called  hay, 
strazv,  fodder,  or  stover  as  the  case  may  be.  We  have 
already  noted  that  a  forage  crop,  cut  and  stored  so  that  it 
will  keep  green,  is  called  silage  or  ensilage. 

1.     Important  Forage  Crops 

The  most  important  forage  crops  may  be  divided  into 
two  broad  classes,  grasses  and  legumes. 

Grasses. — The  grasses  are  among  the  most  wide- 
spread and  important  of  our  plants.  They  include  an  al- 
most endless  variety,  many  of  which  grow  without  culti- 
vation, or  even  special  seeding,  the  seed  being  carried  by 
the  wind,  birds  and  in  many  other  ways. 

Among  the  most  important  grasses  grown  in  the  north- 
ern states  are  timothy,  blue-grass,  the  millets  and  red-top. 
Common  to  the  southern  states  are  Bermuda  grass,  carpet 
grass,  Lespedeza,  Johnson  grass,  orchard  grass  and  hrome- 
grass. 
^  157 


158  AGRICULTURE" 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  our  great  cereals,  corn, 
wheat,  oats,  barley,  rice,  rye,  etc.,  also  belong  to  the  grass 
family. 

While  there  are  so  many  varieties  of  grasses,  they  pos- 
sess certain  characteristics  in  common.  For  example,  prac- 
tically all  grasses  bear  their  seeds  either  ( 1 )  in  a  spike,  like 
wheat,  barley  or  timothy;  or  else  (2)  in  a  panicle,  like  oats 
or  blue-grass.  Most  of  the  grasses  have  hollow  stems,  with 
nodes,  or  joints,  dividing  the  stem  into  sections. 

Some  of  the  grasses  are  annuals;  that  is,  they  make  their 
growth,  raise  seed  and  die  all  in  one  season,  as  oats,  corn, 
or  wheat.  Other  grasses  are  perennials;  they  live  on  from 
season  to  season  without  replanting,  as  timothy,  clover,  al- 
falfa, blue-grass,  or  Bermuda  grass. 

Legumes. — The  legumes  differ  from  grasses  in  that 
they  bear  their  seeds  in  pods,  like  beans  and  peas.  These 
pods  vary  in  form  from  the  close,  nearly  straight  pod  of 
the  pea  to  the  curled  pod  of  alfalfa.  When  the  seed  is 
ripe,  the  pod  splits  open,  and  the  seeds  scatter.  Most 
legumes  branch  more  freely  than  grasses  and  also  send 
their  roots  more  deeply  into  the  soil. 

Some  of  the  most  important  legumes  are  the  clovers, 
alfalfa,  soy-beans,  cow-peas,  the  vetches  and  the  ordinary 
garden  peas  and  beans. 

The  legumes  differ  widely  in  their  manner  of  growth, 
ranging  all  the  way  from  small  herbs  like  clover,  to  vari- 
ous vines,  shrubs  and  even  trees.  Some  of  the  legumes 
are  annuals,  some  are  biennials,  and  others  perennials. 

2.    Importance  of  the  Forage  Crops 

Forage  crops  in  the  United  States  rank  next  in  value 
after  corn  and  cotton.  The  total  acreage  of  improved  pas- 
tures and  harvested  forage  crops  is  considerably  more  than 
all  the  grain  crops  combined.     The  most  important  forage 


FORAGE  CROPS  159 

producing  region  of  the  United  States  is  found  in  the  north 
central  states,  reaching  from  Michigan  and  Ohio  on  the  east 
to  Kansas  and  Nebraska  on  the  west. 

Uses  of  grasses  and  legumes. — Grasses  and  legumes 
have  two  principal  uses :  ( 1 )  they  supply  the  most  impor- 
tant part  of  the  food  of  farm  animals,  and  (2)  they  aid  in 
building  up  the  soil,  making  it  productive  for  other  crops. 
They  are  also  serviceable  in  saving  the  soil  from  washing 
and  blowing. 

A  great  proportion  of  our  cattle,  horses,  sheep  and 
hogs  are  raised  with  forage  as  their  chief  food.  Where 
good  pasturage  is  available,  little  or  no  grain  is  fed  to  grow- 
ing stock,  and  often  none  even  to  milk  cows.  And  when 
grain  is  used  to  fatten  stock,  or  to  give  strength,  as  in  the 
case  of  work  horses,  forage  is  required  to  supply  the  vol- 
atile oils  as  well  as  bulk  and  coarseness  necessary  to  diges- 
tion. 

Both  grasses  and  legumes  tend  to  improve  the  soil. 
Their  decaying  roots,  stems  and  leaves  form  an  important 
part  of  the  soil,  called  humus.  This  vegetable  matter  not 
only  enriches  the  soil,  but  makes  it  lighter  and  more  por- 
ous, so  that  air  can  better  get  to  the  roots  of  growing 
plants.    It  also  favors  proper  drainage  in  damp  soils. 

Legumes  and  the  nitrogen  of  the  soil. — Legumes, 
however,  enrich  the  soil  in  a  special  way,  and  are  widely 
cultivated  for  this  purpose.  In  order  to  understand  how 
legumes  do  their  work  of  improving  the  soil,  it  must  be 
known  that  plants  demand  certain  foods  from  the  soil.  One 
of  the  most  necessary  plant  foods  is  nitrogen.  If  this  is 
lacking  in  the  soil,  the  crop  does  not  grow  well,  and  the 
yield  is  reduced.  For  example,  wheat  takes  much  nitrogen 
from  the  soil ;  this  is  the  main  reason  why  wheat  can  not  be 
grown  on  the  same  land  year  after  year.  The  nitrogen  be- 
comes exhausted.    The  soil  is  '^wom  out."    It  is  estimated 

12 


160  AGRICULTURE 

that  a  twenty-bushel  crop  of  wheat  removes  about  thirty- 
five  pounds  of  nitrogen  from  each  acre. 

Nitrogen  may  be  returned  to  the  soil  in  several  ways. 
One  of  the  most  common  ways  is  by  means  of  barnyard 
manure,  which  is  rich  in  nitrogen.  Another  way  is  through 
commercial  fertilizers,  such  as  sodium  nitrate,  ammonium 
sulphate,  or  dried  blood  saved  from  slaughter-houses.  But 
the  amount  of  manure  is  limited,  and  the  commercial  fer- 
tilizers are  expensive.  And  this  is  where  the  legumes  come 
in  to  help.  Legumes  are  able  to  gather  nitrogen  from  the 
air  and  deposit  it  in  the  soil. 

There  are  millions  of  pounds  of  nitrogen  in  the  atmos- 
phere resting  on  every  acre  of  ground.  But  the  plants 
can  not  make  use  of  this  nitrogen  in  the  form  in  which  it 
exists  in  the  air.  It  has  to  be  made  over  for  them.  This 
is  accomplished  by  bacteria  which  have  their  homes  in  the 
tubercles  or  nodules  found  on  the  roots  of  leguminous 
plants. 

In  the  small  tubercles  to  be  seen  on  the  roots  of  clover, 
alfalfa,  soy-beans  or  cow-peas  are  millions  of  bacteria,  each 
able  in  the  process  of  its  own  growth  to  take  nitrogen  from 
the  air,  change  it  into  the  form  needed  by  growing 
plants,  and  leave  it  in  the  soil  for  the  next  crop.  In  this 
way  the  legume  is  able  not  only  to  secure  its  own  growth, 
but  to  leave  the  soil  richer  through  the  action  of  its  bac- 
teria friends.  The  raising  of  legumes  is  therefore  one  of 
the  best  and  most  economical  ways  of  enriching  the  soil.  So 
itnportant  is  the  group  of  legumes  that  a  separate  chapter 
will  be  given  to  the  most  important  ones. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  What  are  the  chief  grasses  used  for  pasturage  in 
your  neighborhood?     For  hay?     For  lawns? 

2.  What  are  the  principal  legumes  cultivated  in  your 
vicinity?     Which  are  annuals?     Which  are  perennials? 


FORAGE  CROPS  161 

3.  Make  a  collection  of  the  principal  grasses  found  on 
your  father's  farm.  Study  their  method  of  growth.  Com- 
pare stems,  leaves,  roots,  and  method  of  seed  bearing. 

4.  Make  a  similar  collection  and  study  of  the  com- 
mon legumes. 

5.  Secure  the  roots  of  clover,  of  alfalfa,  of  peas,  beans 
and  any  other  available  legumes.  Make  a  study  of  the  tu- 
bercles, comparing  size  and  number.  The  bacteria  are  too 
small  to  be  seen  except  v^ith  a  powerful  microscope.  The 
tubercles  are  most  plentiful  in  the  early  part  of  the  grow- 
ing season. 

6.  Illustrate  how  a  bookkeeping  record  can  be  kept  of 
the  various  types  of  forage  crops,  such  as  alfalfa,  cow- 
peas,  red  and  crimson  clover,  blue-grass,  etc. 

7.  Make  a  study  of  the  map,  locate  the  principal  for- 
age territories,  and  indicate  the  various  types  of  grasses 
and  forage  crops  that  are  being  produced  in  the  different 
sections.  Indicate  in  each  state  the  acreage  allotted  to 
each  type  of  forage. 

8.  Indicate  what  kind  of  stock  thrives  best  on  certain 
forage  crops,  and  tell  why. 

3.     Forage  Demonstrations 

1.  Demonstrate  how  to  prepare  and  make  exhibits  of 
the  various  types  of  grasses,  legumes,  plants,  etc. 

2.  How  to  make  a  grass  seed  test. 

3.  The  difference  between  a  good  and  a  poor  grass 
seed,  stems  and  heads. 

4.  Show  how  grass  seed  should  be  sown  and  what  con- 
stitutes a  good  stand. 

5.  Demonstrate  how  to  make  different  things  in  con- 
nection with  the  forage  crops,  such  as  haycocks,  stacks, 
and  how  to  cut  hay  with  the  scythe. 

4.     Forage  Crop  Club  Projects 

In  many  schools  it  will  be  practicable  for  boys  and  girls 
to  organize  into  clubs  for  the  purpose  of  growing  and  de- 


162  AGRICULTURE 

TTionstrating  the  possibilities  of  profitable  farming  in  alfalfa, 
red  clover,  crimson  clover,  cow-peas,  beans,  etc.  The  age 
requirements  should  be  the  same  as  in  other  clubs.  The 
area  of  the  plot  should  not  be  less  than  one  acre  and  may 
be  more,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  field  available  for 
the  work. 

The  award. — The  basis  of  award  should  be : 

1.  Average  yield  per  acre 30 

2.  Net  profit  on  investment 30 

3.  Exhibit  of  products  (hay  and  seed) 20 

4.  Crop   report   and   story 20 

Total  score 100 

For  most  localities  the  four  most  important  forage  crops 
in  which  to  organize  clubs  would  be  alfalfa,  clovers,  cow- 
peas,  and  blue-grass  sod  for  the  lawn. 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  CLOVERS 

CLOVERS  are  the  most  widely  grown  family  of  legumes 
among  the  farm  crops.  There  are  many  different  types 
of  clover,  such  as  red  clover,  white  clover,  alsike  clover  and 
crimson  clover.  By  far  the  most  important  of  these  is  the 
red  clover,  especially  throughout  the  northeastern  quarter 
of  the  United  States.  The  great  red  clover  section  reaches 
from  Maine  to  Virginia,  and  as  far  west  as  the  Missouri 
River.  Either  alone,  or  mixed  with  grasses  for  hay  and 
pastures,  red  clover  claims  from  one-eighth  to  one-third  of 
all  the  cultivated  land  throughout  the  northeastern  and  north 
central  states.  It  is  now  also  being  successfully  grown  in 
Montana,  Washington,  Oregon  and  in  the  far  Southwest. 

1.     The  Red  Clover  Plant 

Red  clover  is  so  common  a  plant  that  it  can  usually  be 
studied  near  at  hand  in  the  field.  Every  pupil  should  there- 
fore examine  the  growing  plant,  and  bring  a  complete  speci- 
men, including  the  root,  to  school  for  further  reference. 
Also  secure  a  plant  of  timothy,  and  other  grass  or  plants 
commonly  grown  with  red  clover. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

Study  of  the  red  clover  plant. — Compare  the  clover 
and  timothy  plants  (1)  as  to  root  systems,  (2)  stem  and 
mode  of  branching,  (3)  mode  of  flowering  and  seed  bear- 
ing. 

163 


164 


AGRICULTURE 


A  young  red-clover  plant,  showing  the  characteristic  nodules 
on  the  roots. 


THE  CLOVERS  165 

1.  Which  has  the  longer  roots?  Which  will  make  the 
denser  sod?  Why?  Do  you  find  any  tubercles  on  the 
roots?  Is  the  stem  of  either  hollow?  Jointed?  Which 
stands  more  erect  ?  Why  ?  What  is  the  difference  in  their 
leaves?  Which  bears  the  larger  number  of  seeds  to  the 
head?    The  larger  seeds? 

2.  After  red  clover  has  been  cut,  from  what  part  of 
the  plant  does  the  new  growth  start?  How  many  cut- 
tings a  season  can  usually  be  made  of  red  clover?  Which 
cutting  is  used  for  the  production  of  seed? 

3.  What  is  the  shape  of  the  individual  flower  of  the  red 
clover?  How  many  flowers  to  the  average  head?  How 
many  seeds  does  each  flower  bear?  What  is  the  shape  of 
the  seed?  Learn  to  identify  it  when  mixed  with  the  weed 
seeds  most  commonly  found  in  red  clover,  such  as  trefoil, 
curled  dock,  wild  mustard,  dodder,  or  others. 

4.  Write  an  accurate  description  of  the  red  clover 
plant,  so  that  one  who  has  never  seen  the  plant  could 
identify  it  from  your  description. 


2.    Value  of  Red  Clover  on  the  Farm 

Red  clover  as  forage  for  stock.— Red  clover  makes  an 
ideal  forage  crop  for  all  classes  of  farm  stock.  Besides 
being  highly  palatable,  it  contains  a  large  proportion  of 
protein,  one  of  the  most  necessary  elements  of  food  for  ani- 
mals. So  essential  is  protein  for  the  growth  of  animals 
and  the  production  of  milk  and  butter,  that  bran,  oil  meal, 
and  cottonseed-meal  are  commonly  fed  to  supply  this  ele- 
ment. Where  red  clover  can  be  successfully  raised  it  largely 
takes  the  place  of  the  more  costly  foods,  and  at  the  same 
time  supplies  the  roughage  needed  by  all  animals.  When 
grain  is  fed,  as  to  chickens,  hogs  or  cattle,  red  clover,  either 
green  or  cured,  forms  a  most  valuable  item  of  food. 

The  worth  of  clover  as  an  animal  food  has  not  been 
fully  understood.  It  has  been  computed  by  experts  that  a 
ton  of  red-clover  hay  has  almost  two-thirds  as  much  feed- 


166  AGRICULTURE 

ing  value  for  farm  stock  as  a  ton  of  wheat  bran,  and  more 
than  two-thirds  the  feeding  value  of  a  ton  of  shelled  corn. 

Red  clover  as  a  soil  renewer. — As  a  soil  stimulant  and 
fertilizer  red  clover  is  almost  without  a  peer  except  alfalfa. 
By  its  use  in  the  rotation  of  crops,  it  is  possible  to  keep 
the  supply  of  nitrogen  and  humus  almost  undiminished  in 
the  soil,  throughout  years  of  cropping.  The  bacteria  living 
in  the  root  tubercles  transform  atmospheric  nitrogen  into 
soil  nitrogen  and  leave  it  for  other  crops.  The  roots  and 
stems,  decaying,  add  to  the  humus. 

At  the  average  price  for  commercial  fertilizers  often 
used  to  enrich  land,  a  ton  of  clover  is  worth  nearly  ten  dol- 
lars to  plow  under  as  a  fertilizer.  Fields  which  have  been 
in  red  clover  frequently  produce  ten  bushels  more  of  grain 
to  the  acre  than  before  the  clover  was  grown. 

In  the  use  of  clover  as  a  fertilizer  it  must  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  clover  adds  to  the  soil  chiefly  nitrogen 
and  humus;  and  that  if  the  crop  is  all  removed  each  year, 
none  being  plowed  under  and  no  manure  returned,  the 
amounts  of  nitrogen  and  humus  in  the  soil  are  increased  but 
very  little.  Potash  and  phosphorus,  two  other  plant  foods 
often  failing  in  worn  soils,  must  be  supplied  either  by  the 
use  of  commercial  fertilizers  or  barnyard  manure. 

3.    The  Raising  of  Red  Clover 

Red  clover  will  grow  successfully  on  any  soil  that  will 
raise  corn.  Soil  that  is  wet  and  heavy  or  lacking  in  humus 
will  not  produce  a  satisfactory  stand  of  clover.  Red  clover 
has  a  remarkable  root  system,  sending  its  main  roots  down 
as  deep  as  six  or  eight  feet  in  light  friable  soil.  This  en- 
ables plants  which  have  received  a  good  start  to  withstand 
considerable  drought. 

The  seed  bed. — ^The  seed  bed  for  clover  should  be 


THE  CLOVERS 


167 


i' 


1 


Sweet  clover  on  an  Iowa  farm. 


168  AGRICULTURE 

finely  pulverized,  but  well  packed.  If  sown  on  freshly 
plowed  land,  it  is  necessary  to  harrow  until  the  ground  be- 
comes firm,  otherwise  a  poor  stand  is  sure  to  follow.  The 
ground  should  be  clean,  as  clover  is  not  a  good  fighter  of 
weeds. 

Red  clover  may  be  sown  in  the  early  spring  on  fields  of 
winter  wheat.  In  this  case  no  preparation  of  the  seed  bed 
is  required.  The  covering  of  the  seed  may  be  accomplished 
by  weathering.  A  more  certain  way  is  to  harrow  the 
wheat  after  the  clover  has  been  sown,  or  even  both  before 
and  after  the  seeding  of  the  clover.  If  properly  done  this 
does  not  injure  the  wheat.  Red  clover  is  also  often  sown  in 
the  spring  with  oats  as  a  nurse  crop. 

Another  common  method  of  seeding  red  clover  is  in 
a  field  of  standing  corn  just  following  the  last  cultivation. 
This  plan  has  worked  successfully,  especially  in  some  of 
the  eastern  and  southern  states.  If  the  crop  of  corn  is 
heavy  enough  to  shade  the  ground,  or  if  the  fall  happens  to 
be  dry,  a  successful  stand  is  uncertain. 

Time  of  sowing. — In  the  larger  part  of  the  red-clover 
region,  it  does  not  seem  to  matter  greatly  whether  the 
clover  is  sown  in  the  spring  or  the  fall.  Which  time  is  better 
depends  on  the  season.  Young  clover  plants  do  not  easily 
withstand  drought.  If  a  dry  season  follows  the  seeding,  the 
stand  will  not  succeed  no  matter  when  the  planting  is  done. 

In  spring  seeding  with  a  nurse  crop  of  winter  wheat,  the 
clover  should  be  sown  at  the  earliest  possible  moment.  If 
the  ground  is  not  to  be  harrowed  to  cover  the  seed,  it  may 
be  sown  on  a  late  fall  of  snow.  This  gives  the  clover  plants 
the  advantage  of  a  start  before  the  moisture  is  out  of  the 
soil,  and  also  before  the  nurse  crop  gets  large  enough  to 
shade  the  young  plants. 

If  the  seeding  is  done  in  the  fall,  the  crop  should  be 


THE  CLOVERS 


169 


sown  early  enough  so  that  the  clover  plants  will  attain  a 
growth  of  from  four  to  six  inches  before  the  freezing 
weather.     Otherwise  they  may  not  be  able  to  live  through 


"RedcUver 

-4 

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SCUvevr 
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mustard 
dodder 

!     cWvcorH 

Seeds   of  red   clover   and   common   im- 
purities. 


the  winter,  especially  in  the  northern  states.     Seeding  after 
August  fifteenth  is  unsafe  in  the  northern  states. 


IFO  AGRICULTURE 

Clover  seed. — A  great  deal  of  the  trouble  found  in 
securing  a  good  stand  of  red  clover  comes  from  poor  seed. 
Good  red-clover  seed  should  (1)  be  plump,  and  not  shriv- 
eled; (2)  look  bright  instead  of  dull;  (3)  vary  in  color 
from  violet  to  light  yellow,  but  not  be  a  dull  brown;  (4) 
show  individual  seeds  medium  to  large  size;  (5)  be  free 
from  all  weed  seed  and  rubbish;  (6)  be  free  from  what 
is  called  "hard"  seed.  By  hard  seed  is  meant  grains  whose 
seed  coat  is  such  that  the  seed  absorbs  moisture  but  slowly 
hence  may  not  germinate  for  several  weeks  or  even 
months.  The  seed  of  very  new  varieties  may  contain  as 
much  as  fifty  to  sixty  per  cent,  of  hard  seed. 

As  is  the  case  with  most  other  farm  crops,  it  is  safer  to 
secure  clover  seed  from  near  home  than  from  a  distance. 
In  this  way  one  may  be  sure  that  the  variety  is  adapted 
to  the  season,  climate  and  soil  conditions  of  the  vicinity, 
and  be  sure  that  the  seed  does  not  contain  noxious  weeds 
and  other  impurities. 

Cleaning  red  clover  seed. — Ordinary  red  clover  seed 
contains  many  different  kinds  of  weed  seeds.  Some  of 
these  look  enough  like  clover  grains  that  they  may  pass 
unnoticed.  Sowing  clover  mixed  with  weeds  not  only 
reduces  the  stand  of  clover,  but  compels  the  clover  to  divide 
its  moisture  and  food  with  its  worst  enemies,  besides  ren- 
dering the  ground  foul  for  other  crops. 

Screening  red  clover  seed  through  a  sieve  with  twenty 
meshes  to  the  inch  will  remove  all  the  smaller  weed  seeds, 
while  retaining  the  medium-sized  and  larger  clover  grains. 
Seeds  of  wild  carrot,  ragweed,  thistles,  buckthorn,  wild 
chickory,  and  several  other  weeds  bearing  large  seeds  are 
not  removed  in  this  way.  Clover  seed  should  first  of  all 
be  selected  from  a  field  that  is  as  free  as  possible  from 
weeds.  Even  then,  screening  will  pay  for  the  removal  of 
the  smaller  clover  and  weed  seeds. 


THE  CLOVERS  171 

4.     Harvesting  the  Red  Clover  Crop 

Red  clover  should  be  cut  for  hay  just  as  it  is  past  full 
bloom.  If  cut  much  earlier  than  this  the  entire  food  value 
of  the  plant  is  not  obtained;  if  it  is  allowed  to  stand  too 
long  the  leaves  begin  to  fall,  and  the  stems  become  dry 
and  stiff.  If  the  second  crop  is  to  be  cut  for  seed,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  cut  the  first  somewhat  early. 

The  care  of  clover  hay. — In  stacking  or  mowing  the 
hay  in  a  barn,  the  important  thing  is  to  avoid  exposure  to 
the  weather,  or  becoming  dry  enough  so  that  the  leaves 
crumble  and  are  lost.  For  the  leaves  of  red  clover,  while 
they  are  only  about  forty  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  plant, 
contain  almost  two-thirds  of  the  protein  of  the  whole  plant. 
Clover  hay  that  has  become  too  dry  is  also  very  dusty,  and 
not  so  good  for  feed. 

Red  clover  hay  does  not  shed  rain  so  well  as  the  grass 
liays,  and  should  therefore  be  stored  in  a  barn  where  pos- 
sible. If  it  must  be  put  into  stacks,  these  should  be  built 
with  the  greatest  care,  keeping  the  middle  of  the  stack  full 
and  well  tramped.  The  top  should  be  covered  with 
canvas,  or  with  a  coating  of  grass  or  straw. 

Care  must  be  taken  not  to  put  red  clover  into  the  barn  or 
stack  when  it  is  damp  from  dew  or  rain,  as  it  has  a  tend- 
ency to  heat.  This  heating  not  only  damages  the  hay, 
but  not  infrequently  sets  fire  to  the  stack  or  barn  and  burns 
it  down. 

Harvesting  red  clover  for  seed. — Red  clover  seed  is 
usually  secured  from  the  second  crop  of  the  season,  the 
first  being  harvested  for  hay.  The  clover  is  cut  either  with 
a  mower  or  a  special  header,  and  run  through  a  clover 
huller.  By  special  adjustment  an  ordinary  thrashing  ma- 
chine may  be  used  for  hulling  the  seed.  Clover  straw  still 
possesses  good  feeding  value  after  the  seed  is  removed. 


172  AGRICULTURE 

5.     The  Enemies  of  Red  Clover 

In  the  starting  of  the  clover  crop,  the  two  principal  ene- 
mies to  be  encountered  are  drought  and  hard  winters.  A 
stand  not  infrequently  fails  from  one  or  the  other  of  these 
natural  causes,  which  can  not  be  guarded  against,  except  to 
sow  the  crop  at  proper  times,  and  according  to  proper  meth- 
ods of  seeding.  Red  clover  is  so  valuable,  however,  that 
an  occasional  failure  to  secure  a  stand  should  only  spur 
the  farmer  to  try  for  better  success. 

Insect  enemies. — Various  insects  seem  to  find  red 
clover  highly  palatable,  and  hence  feed  upon  it.  Yet  only 
a  few  of  these  do  the  crop  any  great  damage. 

One  of  the  worst  of  these  pests  is  a  small  species  of 
beetle  known  as  the  clover  root-borer.  This  beetle  is  of  a 
brownish  color,  and  grows  about  one-sixth  of  an  inch  in 
length.  The  larvae  of  this  insect  attack  the  roots  of  the 
clover,  usually  during  the  second  year  of  the  crop.  They 
have  done  the  most  damage  in  regions  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  especially  in  Michigan,  Indiana  and  Ohio.  The 
only  remedy  so  far  found  is  to  plow  the  damaged  field  as 
soon  as  the  hay  is  removed.  The  larvse  are  then  without 
food  and  soon  die,  leaving  the  field  free  of  their  kind  for 
a  future  crop. 

The  seed-bearing  qualities  of  red  clover  are  often  seri- 
ously damaged  by  the  clover-seed  chalcis  fly.  This  is  an 
insect  shaped  like  a  wasp,  and  about  the  size  of  a  seed  of 
red  clover.  Just  before  the  clover  seed  begins  to  harden 
this  fly  lays  its  eggs  in  the  growing  seed.  As  the  larvae 
develop  they  use  the  seed  for  food,  entirely  destroying  it  by 
the  time  they  secure  their  growth.  The  chalcis  fly  is  respon- 
sible for  much  of  the  poor  yield  of  clover  seed.  It  is  one 
of  the  worst  clover  crop  pests  in  the  United  States.  It  is 
thought  that  light  pasturing  in  the  early  spring,  or  even 


THE  CLOVERS 


173 


Effect  on  clover  seed  of 
the  chalcis  fly. 


Stnges  in  development  of  red-clover 
seed:  (a)  flower;  (b)  immature 
seed  vessel;  (c)  flower  ripe;  (d)  ma- 
ture seed  vessel ;  (e)  seed. 


Second  crop  of  red  clover  nearly  ready  to  cut  for  seed.     The 
first  crop  yielded  21  tons  to  the  acre. 


174  AGRICULTURE 

mowing  the  clover  soon  after  it  starts  will  do  much  to  reduce 
the  danger. 

Clover  has  at  least  one  enemy  that  works  after  the 
crop  is  stacked  or  mowed ;  this  is  the  clover-hay  worm.  It 
usually  works  in  the  bottom  of  the  stack  or  mow,  eating 
the  softer  portions  of  the  plant,  but  also  damaging  the 
feeding  qualities  of  the  hay  by  its  excrement  and  a  web 
that  it  leaves.  Salting  the  hay  near  the  bottom  of  the 
stack  or  mow  will  do  much  toward  stopping  the  work  of 
this  pest. 

While  the  botanists  tell  us  that  red  clover  is  a  perennial, 
it  is  seldom  able  to  maintain  a  stand  for  more  than  three 
or  four  years,  when  it  must  be  reseeded.  Red  clover  is 
usually  followed  by  a  grain  crop  before  clover  is  again 
grown. 

6.     Other  Types  of  Clover 

Crimson  clover. — This  clover  and  its  cultural  methods 
are  similar  to  those  of  red  clover,  but  it  differs  from  the  oth- 
er clovers  in  being  an  annual.  It  is  a  relatively  new  crop, 
having  recently  been  brought  to  this  country  from  Europe. 
It  is  grown  chiefly  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  United 
States,  where  it  assumes  the  same  importance  that  red 
clover  has  farther  north.  Crimson  clover  does  not  demand 
so  rich  a  soil  as  red  clover  or  alfalfa.  It  is  of  great  im- 
portance in  the  east,  southeast  and  southwest  of  the  United 
States. 

White  clover. — White  clover  is  well  known  over  most 
of  the  red  clover  region.  It  differs  in  its  manner  of  growth 
from  red  clover,  being  of  a  creeping  habit,  and  therefore 
not  well  adapted  to  use  as  a  hay  crop.  White  clover  is 
very  hardy,  and  will  often  work  its  way  into  a  pasture  with- 
out seeding,  the  seeds  being  carried  by  winds  and  the  birds. 


THE  CLOVERS     *  175 

It  makes  an  excellent  pasture  grass,  and  is  also  often  used 
in  lawn  mixtures. 

Alsike  clover. — ^Alsike  clover  is  named  from  a  town 
in  Sweden,  where  it  is  said  to  have  originated.  It  resem- 
bles red  clover  but  is  of  a  finer,  more  delicate  type,  and 
therefore  does  not  yield  so  well.  While  red  clover  will 
produce  two  crops  each  season,  alsike  clover  will  grow 
but  one.  This  clover  is  especially  suited  to  wet  heavy  soil 
which  will  not  grow  red  clover,  and  in  such  regions  proves 
a  valuable  crop. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  How  many  acres  or  clover  are  now  growing  on 
your  father's  farm?  Make  a  comparison  for  all  the  farms 
represented  in  the  school.  What  other  legumes  are  raised 
at  your  home?  Is  the  clover  grown  alone,  or  with  other 
hay  crops?    What  are  they? 

2.  How  long  have  your  father's  clover  fields  been 
down?  Ask  your  father  whether  clover  that  has  been 
down  two  or  three  years  begins  to  die  out?  What  is  the 
oldest  field  of  clover  in  the  vicinity  ? 

3.  Secure  several  samples  of  red  or  crimson  clover  seed. 
These  may  be  taken  from  the  supply  intended  for  sowing,  or 
from  the  barn  floor  where  clover  is  fed.  Study  these  sam- 
ples with  reference  to  the  qualities  named  in  the  text  for 
clover  seed.  What  proportion  of  the  seed  turns  out  to  be 
weed  seed  instead  of  clover?  Can  you  identify  the  dif- 
ferent weeds  represented? 

4.  Make  a  seed  tester  out  of  two  plates  and  pieces  of 
Canton  flannel.  Place  one  hundred  seeds  of  clover  be- 
tween the  plates,  dampen  the  cloth  and  keep  warm  for  four 
or  five  days.  How  many  of  the  seeds  have  sprouted?  What 
percentage  failed  to  grow?  Is  it  probable  that  some  of  the 
seeds  were  "hard"  ? 

5.  If  clover  seed  such  as  you  tested  is  selling  at 
eight  dollars  a  bushel,  what  would  the  good  seed  in  your 
sample  really  cost  the  purchaser  ?    Would  a  farmer  better 

13 


176  AGRICULTURE 

pay  nine  dollars  a  bushel  for  pure  seed,  ninety-five  per 
cent,  of  which  is  strong  and  pure,  or  seven  dollars  a  bushel 
for  dirty  and  impure  seed,  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  which 
will  grow  ?  Have  in  mind  also  the  fact  that  the  farmer  can 
not  afford  to  sow  weed  seed  with  his  clover.  Will  it  pay  to 
test  the  clover  seed  before  planting? 

6.  Secure  specimen  plants  and  samples  of  seeds  of  all 
the  different  clovers  to  be  found  in  your  region.  Learn  to 
identify  both  plant  and  seed. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
ALFALFA 

1.     The  Alfalfa  Plant 

FIRST  of  all  secure,  if  possible,  samples  of  growing 
alfalfa  plants.  Go  into  the  field  and  dig  up  several 
plants  of  different  sizes,  one  year  old,  two  years  old,  and 
t*hree  years  old.  Try  to  obtain  the  entire  root  system  of  at 
least  one  good-sized  plant.  This  may  be  hard  to  do,  as  the 
roots  usually  extend  from  eight  to  ten  feet  down  in  the 
soil,  and  under  favorable  conditions  often  twice  this  depth. 
Study  of  the  alfalfa  plant. — Study  the  plant,  noting 
the  mode  of  branching,  the  system  of  leaves,  the  method  of 
floM^ering,  and  the  arrangement  of  seeds  and  pods.  Look 
for  the  tubercles  on  the  roots.  These  are  most  plentiful  in 
the  spring.  Later  in  the  season  they  fall  off  and  decay  in 
the  soil.  If  the  roots  are  pulled  up  roughly,  the  nodules 
will  be  stripped  off  and  remain  in  the  ground.  The  indi- 
vidual bacteria  can  not  be  seen  except  with  a  powerful  mi- 
croscope. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  How  many  cuttings  to  the  season  are  made  of 
alfalfa?    How  many  of  clover?     Of  timothy? 

2.  What  is  the  average  cutting  of  alfalfa  to  the  acre? 
Of  clover?  Of  timothy?  Of  cow-peas?  Compare,  then, 
the  total  crop  for  the  season  of  the  three  kinds  of  forage? 

3.  What  is  the  market  value  of  alfalfa  per  ton?  Of 
clover?  Of  timothy?  Of  cow-peas?  Compare  the  value 
per  acre  for  feeding  purposes  of  each  of  the  three  hay  crops. 

177 


178  AGRICULTURE 

4.  What  does  it  cost  to  produce  an  acre  of  alfalfa  and 
harvest  it?  Of  clover?  Of  timothy?  Of  cow-peas?  Find 
which  is  the  most  profitable  crop  based  on  market  value  for 
feed. 

2.     The  Growing  of  Alfalfa 

Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  oldest  plants  known.  It  was 
known  in  Greece  five  hundred  years  B.  C.,  and  raised  in 
England  before  Columbus  discovered  America.  It  has  been 
known  in  this  country  for  more  than  a  century,  but  only 
recently  has  it  become  of  any  great  importance  as  a  farm 
crop.  And  even  yet,  its  value  is  but  little  understood,  and 
the  methods  of  its  growth  management  are  far  from  mas- 
tered. 

Acreage  of  alfalfa. — At  present  barely  one-tenth  as 
many  acres  are  devoted  to  alfalfa  as  to  clover  and  tim- 
othy, and  one-ninth  as  many  as  to  wheat.  We  have  twenty 
acres  in  corn  to  every  acre  in  alfalfa.  Yet  the  amount  of 
land  devoted  to  alfalfa  is  increasing  every  year,  and  it  will 
soon  become  one  of  our  principal  forage  crops. 

The  alfalfa  region. — The  alfalfa  region  of  the  United 
States  at  present  lies  principally  west  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  Out  of  about  five  million  acres  of  alfalfa  raised  in 
the  entire  country,  Kansas  grows  one  million  acres,  or  one- 
fifth  of  the  crop. 

Alfalfa  is  especially  adapted  to  dry  soils  and  climates, 
and  is  therefore  of  the  greatest  value  in  the  semi-arid  re- 
gions of  the 'West.  Utah,  Arizona,  Colorado,  Idaho  and 
other  western  states  are  using  alfalfa  to  make  fertile  many 
acres  of  soil  almost  barren  for  other  crops. 

The  great  corn  belt  states  are  admirably  adapted  to  the 
raising  of  alfalfa,  but  have  as  yet  done  little  with  it.  For 
example,  the  following  are  the  ranks  of  these  states  in  the 
production  of  alfalfa  in  the  United   States:     Ohio,  nine- 


ALFALFA 


179 


teenth ;  Iowa,  twentieth ;  Kentucky,  twenty-first ;  Illinois, 
twenty-second ;  Wisconsin,  twenty-third ;  Indiana,  twenty- 
fourth,  and  Michigan,  twenty-ninth. 


CORN 


ALFALFA 


Comparison  of  corn  and  alfalfa  roots,  showing  why  alfalfa  is  a 
drought  resister. 


3.    Alfalfa  as  Forage  for  Stock 

Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  forage  crops  known 
for  the  feeding  of  farm  animals.  Like  clover,  it  contains  a 
high  degree  of  that  most  important  element  of  food,  protein, 
which  goes  to  make  both  bone  and  muscle.  With  such 
foragje  as  timothy,  corn,  stover,  or  straw  fed  to  stock,  protein 


180  AGRICULTURE 

must  be  supplied  in  the  form  of  bran,  or  some  other  such 
feed.  Alfalfa  serves  the  same  purpose,  and  is  much  cheaper 
to  produce. 

Feeding  value  of  alfalfa. — The  following  table  shows 
the  feeding  value  of  eight  different  kinds  of  feed,  based 
on  the  digestible  nutrient  material  in  each :  (Farmers*  Bul- 
letin, 339.  These  figures  are  only  relative,  since  prices  vary 
from  year  to  year.) 

Value  Value 

Feed                                per  ton  Feed                                per  ton 

Green    alfalfa $  7.00      Timothy   hay $  9.00 

Green    clover 5.96      Cow-pea  hay 19.76 

Alfalfa    hay 20.16       Wheat    bran 22.80 

Clover   hay -. 14.12       Shelled    corn   20.16 

It  is  seen  that  the  feeding  value  of  alfalfa  hay  is  more 
than  double  that  of  timothy.  It  is  almost  equal  to  wheat 
bran,  and  just  equal  to  shelled  corn.  Alfalfa  has  an  addi- 
tional value  for  feeding  stock  because  it  is  highly  palatable 
to  almost  every  farm  animal,  even  to  poultry  and  hogs. 

Bran  costs  an  average  of  about  twenty  dollars  a  ton; 
to  raise  alfalfa  hay  costs  an  average  of  about  five  dollars  a 
ton.  Why  not  grow  the  protein  needed  by  the  farm  animals 
instead  of  buying  it?  As  farmers  learn  more  of  the  value 
of  alfalfa  this  is  what  they  will  do. 

4.    Alfalfa  as  a  Renewer  of  the  Soil 

Alfalfa  is  probably  the  best  of  the  legumes  as  a  soil 
renewer.  The  bacteria  which  grow  in  the  root  tubercles  are 
able  to  take  the  nitrogen  directly  from  the  air  and  add  it  to 
the  soil  in  such  form  that  it  can  be  used  by  other  crops. 
The  deep  rooting  system  of  the  alfalfa  plant  also  enables  it  to 
bring  other  minerals  from  the  lower  layers  of  the  soil,  de- 
positing them  near  the  surface  where  other  plants  can  use 
them.    The  generous  roots  add  much  humus  to  the  soil. 


ALFALFA 


181 


In  Colorado,  Nebraska  and  Wyoming,  farmers  have 
found  that  almost  double  the  yield  of  grain  is  produced 
from  the  same  fields  after  they  have  been  in  alfalfa  for  sev- 
eral years.     Even  greater  results  have  been  experienced  in 


mr  -""^  -^gaw^ww  ■ 


Examining  the  tubercles  on  alfalfa  roots  in  a  southern  field. 

the  South  in  the  yield  of  cotton  crops  that  have  followed 
alfalfa. 

Alfalfa  can  be  used  in  the  same  way  throughout  the 
corn  region  to  improve  the  soil  for  other  crops.  Besides 
being  one  of  the  cheapest  and  most  effective  means  known 
of  restoring  certain  elements  to  worn  soil,  it  is  also  a  crop 


182 


AGRICULTURE 


which   is   in   itself  more  profitable   than  almost   any  other 
crop  that  can  be  raised. 

5.     Raising  the  Crop 

Soil   requirements   for   alfalfa. — It    is    especially    im- 
portant in  raising  alfalfa  that  soil  naturally  wet  shall  be 


Scliool  cliildren  in  Cook  Couuty,  Illinois,  studying  the  relation 
of  alfalfa  to  corn  growing. 

well  drained.  While  alfalfa  requires  much  moisture  in 
growing,  it  will  not  stand  the  dampness  of  undrained  soils. 
If  submerged  with  water  it  will  quickly  die. 

In  heavy  damp  soil  there  is  also  likely  to  be  more  acid 
than  is  good  for  the  alfalfa  plant.  Before  sowing  alfalfa  it 
is,  therefore,  best  to  test  the  soil  for  acid.  This  can  easily 
be  done  by  taking  a  little  of  the  soil  when  damp  and  plac- 


ALFALFA  183 

ing  it  upon  blue  litmus  paper  (or  by  some  of  the  other 
methods  recommended  by  state  experiment  stations).  If 
the  paper  turns  to  a  pink  color  it  indicates  the  presence  of 
acid,  and  the  soil  should  then  have  an  application  of  lime 
to  counteract  the  acid. 

Starting  alfalfa. — If  proper  methods  are  used  it  should 
be  no  harder  to  start  alfalfa  than  clover.  First  of  all,  the 
seed  must  be  most  carefully  selected,  and  should  be  tested 
before  sowing.  This  can  easily  be  done  by  means  of  a 
home-made  tester,  as  in  the  case  of  clover. 

Particularly  should  the  seed  be  free  from  all  noxious 
weeds  or  other  impurities.  For  weeds  are  among  the  worst 
enemies  of  alfalfa.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  the  alfalfa 
crop  is  completely  killed  out  of  certain  fields  in  a  few  years 
by  the  increase  of  weeds. 

The  seed  bed  should  be  more  carefully  prepared  than 
for  almost  any  other  farm  crop.  After  plowing  it  must 
be  harrowed  so  thoroughly  as  to  pack  it  well  and  leave  a 
fine  mulch  on  top.  If  the  seed  bed  can  be  prepared  some 
time  ahead  of  the  sowing  so  as  to  give  an  opportunty  for 
several  harrowings  so  much  the  better.  The  seeding  may 
be  done  either  broadcast  or  with  a  drill.  It  has  been  found 
best  in  most  parts  of  the  country  not  to  sow  alfalfa  with  a 
nurse  crop,  since  the  nurse  crop  deprives  the  young  alfalfa 
plants  of  moisture,  nourishment  and  light.  It  is  of  great 
advantage  to  manure  the  field  before  seeding  to  alfalfa. 

Inoculating  the  soil. — It  is  usually  best  to  inoculate 
the  soil  before  sowing  alfalfa.  This  means  to  put  into  the 
soil  some  of  the  bacteria  which  inhabit  the  root  nodules. 
Almost  any  soil  suitable  for  alfalfa  has  some  of  these  bac- 
teria to  begin  with,  so  that  alfalfa  may  often  be  started 
without  inoculation.  But  where  the  supply  of  bacteria  is 
very  small,  and  where  the  soil  is  poor  it  will  pay  to  inocu- 
late.   This  may  easily  be  accomplished  by  gathering  the  sur- 


184 


AGRICULTURE 


face  soil  from  a  field  on  vvtiich  aTfalfa  Has  been  raised,  and 
scattering  it  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  to  five  hundred 
pounds  to  the  acre  over  the  field  to  be  sown. 


An  alfalfa  plant  several  years  old. 
system  and  the  size  of  the  plant. 


Note  the  generous  root 


Similar  results  can  be  had  by  gathering  soil  in  which 
sweet  clover  so  commonly  found  along  the  roadsides  has 


ALFALFA  185 

been  growing.  Care  must  be  taken  in  gathering  and  scat- 
tering the  soil  not  to  allow  it  to  be  exposed  to  sunlight,  as 
this  will  kill  the  bacteria.  It  is  better  therefore  to  secure 
the  soil  and  spread  it  over  the  new  field  on  cloudy  days 
or  in  the  late  evening.  The  alfalfa  seed  should  be  sown 
immediately  and  harrowed  in  so  that  the  bacteria  may  be 
covered,  and  be  thus  secure  from  the  sunlight. 

Time  for  seeding. — Late  summer  has  been  found  the 
best  time  for  seeding  alfalfa  in  the  East  and  the  South,  while 
in  the  West  spring  seeding  is  the  rule.  Spring  seeding  has 
also  been  found  to  work  better  in  Minnesota,  Wisconsin 
and  the  Dakotas.  No  general  rule  as  to  the  time  of  seed- 
ing can,  however,  be  given.  Much  will  depend  on  the  cli- 
mate, length  of  season  and  amount  of  rainfall  or  irrigation 
water  available.  The  chief  thing  necessary  is  to  seed  as 
long  as  possible  before  the  time  of  year  that  will  be  hardest 
on  the  plants.  In  the  North  this  requires  spring  or  early 
summer  seeding  in  order  that  the  plants  may  get  sufficient 
growth  before  freezing  to  withstand  the  winter.  Alfalfa 
plants  less  than  six  inches  high  do  not  ordinarily  live  well 
through  the  hard  northern  winters. 

In  some  regions  there  is  trouble  in  getting  the  plants 
started  before  drought  comes  on  to  check  their  growth. 
Throughout  the  corn  belt  late  summer  seeding  should  us- 
ually be  practised.  Alfalfa  sown  during  August  and  the 
first  week  of  September  will  have  the  best  chance  through- 
out this  region. 

6.     Harvesting  the  Crop 

Time  for  cutting. — Alfalfa  makes  the  best  hay  if  cut 
while  in  early  bloom.  A  better  means  of  determining  the 
time  for  cutting  is,  however,  to  watch  the  start  of  the  new 
shoots  from  the  base  of  the  plant.  These  shoots  make  the 
growth  for  the  succeeding  crop.    When  they  are  from  one 


186 


AGRICULTURE 


to  two  inches  in  length  is  the  best  time  to  harvest.     In  this 
way  the  new  growth  goes  on  without  interruption. 

If  the  cutting  takes  place  much  earlier  than  this,  there 
is  a  loss  of  growing  time  in  waiting  for  the  new  shoots  to 
develop.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  cutting  is  delayed  until 
these  shoots  are  too  long,  the  mower  will  clip  them  off  and 
they  must  begin  all  over  again,  thus  delaying  the  next  crop. 
Usually  it  is  possible  to  secure  three  cuttings  of  alfalfa  in 


Side  delivery  raker  in  an  alfalfa  field,  yielding  two  tons  to 
the  acre  on  second  cutting. 


the  corn  region  and  as  many  as  eight  and  even  more  in 
some  of  the  irrigated  regions  of  the  West.  It  is  evident 
that  if  the  greatest  number  of  cuttings  is  to  be  secured 
each  crop  must  be  cut  as  soon  as  it  is  ready  in  order  to  let 
the  next  crop  get  properly  started. 

Handling  the  hay. — Alfalfa,  like  clover,  should  be 
harvested  so  that  the  hay  may  reach  the  barn  or  stack  with 
the  least  possible  amount  of  handling  or  exposure  to  the 


ALFALFA  187 

weather.  The  alfalfa  leaves  contain  a  large  proportion  of 
the  food  value  of  the  plant,  and  are  easily  crumbled  and 
lost  if  the  hay  gets  too  dry. 

Probably  the  best  plan  is  to  cock  the  hay  when  the  stems 
are  about  half  dry,  stacking  it  when  moisture  no  longer 
shows  as  a  wisp  of  the  plant  is  twisted  by  the  fingers.  In 
regions  where  frequent  rains  are  the  rule  during  the  hay- 
ing season,  it  pays  to  have  haycock  covers  consisting  of 
squares  of  muslin  to  the  corners  of  which  weights  are  at- 
tached, or  pins  to  thrust  into  the  hay  or  the  ground. 

7.    Enemies  of  Alfalfa 

Weed  enemies. — Undoubtedly  weeds  are  the  worst 
enemies  of  alfalfa  in  most  parts  of  the  country.  This  is 
particularly  true  throughout  the  West  and  Southwest. 
Among  the  weed  enemies  are  witch-grass,  crab-grass  and 
dodder  in  the  West,  blue-grass  and  foxtail  throughout  the 
Middle  West,  crab-grass,  wild  clovers,  dandelions,  etc.,  in 
the  South  and  East,  wild  clovers,  crab-grass,  ordinary 
weeds  and  the  barleys  in  the  far  West.  Cultivation  with 
the  spring-tooth  harrow  or  disk  is  the  best  means  of  kill- 
ing most  of  the  weeds. 

An  especially  troublesome  weed  among  alfalfa  is  dodder. 
Dodder  is  a  plant  which  twines  itself  about  the  alfalfa  seed- 
lings, soon  attaching  its  threadlike  stems  firmly  to  the 
alfalfa  plant.  The  dodder  stem  then  withers  away  near 
the  ground  and  the  dodder  continues  to  live  as  a  parasite 
on  the  alfalfa.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  exterminate  dodder 
when  it  has  once  secured  a  foothold  in  an  alfalfa  field. 
Turning  sheep  into  the  field  to  graze  is  one  remedy  for  this 
pest.  Another  is  to  cut  the  alfalfa  very  low  or  even  remove 
it  entirely  on  any  spots  in  the  field  where  dodder  starts. 

Insect  enemies. — Alfalfa  does  not  have  so  wide  a 
range  of  insect  enemies  as  some  of  the  other  farm  plants. 


188 


AGRICULTURE 


A  six-weeks-old  field  of  alfalfa  in  Nortli  Dakota. 


Alfalfa  curing  under  cover. 


ALFALFA  189 

The  alfalfa  weevil  and  grasshoppers  are  probably  the  worst 
enemies  of  this  kind,  particularly  in  the  regions  of  the 
West.  It  has  been  found  that  disking  an  alfalfa  field  lale 
in  the  fall  in  the  northern  states  and  mid-winter  in  east 
central  states  exposes  the  weevil  and  grasshopper  young  to 
freezing  and  the  attacks  of  birds,  and  thus  reduces  their 
number. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  How  many  acres  of  alfalfa  are  grown  on  each  farm 
represented  in  the  school?  How  long  has  alfalfa  been 
raised  in  the  vicinity  ?  Why  is  not  more  grown,  since  it  is 
one  of  the  most  profitable  crops  known  ? 

2.  Out  of  one  hundred  successful  alfalfa  growers  in 
the  corn  belt,  eighty-five  testified  that  they  had  planted 
according  to  the  following  program :  Manured  the  ground, 
fall  plowed,  summer  fallowed  the  next  season  (surface 
cultivated  without  crop),  limed,  inoculated,  seeded  about 
August  first.  Make  an  inquiry  among  the  alfalfa  growers 
in  your  vicinity.  How  many  did  all  these  things?  Which 
did  they  omit,  if  any?    How  did  they  succeed? 

3.  Collect  samples  of  field  soil  taken  several  inches  be- 
low the  surface  from  each  of  the  farms  represented  in  the 
school.  Moisten  the  soil,  roll  it  into  a  ball,  cut  the  ball 
into  halves,  and  place  between  the  halves  a  piece  of  litmus 
paper,  leaving  it  a  few  moments.  Does  it  turn  pink?  If 
so,  this  is  an  indication  of  acid  or  sour  condition  of  the 
soil.  What  treatment  should  an  acid  soil  receive  before 
being  sown  to  alfalfa? 

4.  If  there  is  no  alfalfa  grown  on  your  father^s  farm, 
talk  with  him  about  the  crop,  and  join  with  him  in  starting 
a  small  field.  Would  your  field  need  liming?  Would  you 
know  where  to  secure  soil  for  inoculating?  If  there  is  no 
alfalfa  near,  is  there  not  sweet  clover  along  th^  roadside? 


CHAPTER  XIV 
OTHER  LEGUMES 

WHILE  red  clover  and  alfalfa  are  the  most  important 
leguminous  plants  for  large  portions  of  the  United 
States,  there  are  several  other  legumes  that  deserve  atten- 
tion. Chief  among  these  are  the  cow-pea,  grown  chiefly  in 
the  South ;  the  vetches,  the  soy-bean,  the  peanut,  field  beans 
and  peas,  and  several  others  of  lesser  importance.  These 
are  produced  (1)  for  forage,  or  hay  feed,  (2)  for  soil 
renovation,  and  (3)   for  their  seeds. 

1.     The  Cow-pea 

The  cow-pea  is  to  the  South  what  red  clover  and  alfalfa 
are  to  the  West  and  North.  It  grows  successfully  on  almost 
any  kind  of  soil  found  in  the  cotton  belt,  and  its  cultiva- 
tion is  being  rapidly  extended  throughout  this  region. 

The  plant. — The  cow-pea  was  but  recently  introduced 
into  this  country,  coming  from  China.  The  plant  resem- 
bles the  ordinary  garden  bean  in  appearance  and  manner  of 
growth.  It  reaches  a  height  of  from  one  to  nearly  five 
feet.  The  smaller  varieties  stand  nearly  erect,  the  taller 
varieties   spreading  out  vine-like  on  the  ground. 

The  leaves  are  broad,  and  grow  in  clusters  of  three. 
The  flowers  resemble  those  of  the  garden  pea,  and  are 
greenish-yellow  in  color.  The  pods,  which  are  cylindrical 
in  shape,  grow  from  two  to  some  seven  inches  in  length. 
The  roots,  which  penetrate  deeply  into  the  soil,  bear  tuber- 
cles, which  are  the  home  of  nitrogen-gathering  bacteria. 

190 


OTHER  LEGUMES 


191 


The  cow-pea. 


14 


192  AGRICULTURE 

Cow-peas  as  forage. — Cow-peas,  when  harvested  for 
hay,  yield  from  two  to  three  tons  to  the  acre.  The  feed- 
ing value  of  cow-pea  hay  is  fully  equal  to  that  of  red  clover, 
and  nearly  equal  to  alfalfa  or  wheat  bran.  It  has  been 
found  a  better  forage  feed  for  working  animals  in  the  South 
than  grass  hay.  It  is  rich  in  protein,  and  therefore  an  ac- 
ceptable substitute  for  corn  or  cottonseed-meal  in  the  fat- 
tening of  stock. 

Since  the  cow-pea  is  an  annual,  it  does  not  lend  itself  to 
the  making  of  permanent  meadows  or  pastures  as  does 
alfalfa.  Cow-peas  sowed  in  corn  are  profitably  used  as  pas- 
turage for  hogs,  the  gain  in  weight  being  in  some  cases 
more  than  twice  as  fast  with  a  mixed  feed  of  cow-peas  and 
corn  as  when  corn  alone  is  fed.  Cattle  also  do  well  on  a 
pasturage  of  cow-peas.  Bloating  is  likely  to  occur,  how- 
ever, if  grazing  is  allowed  when  the  cow-peas  are  wet. 

The  cow-pea  as  a  soil  renovator. — The  cow-pea  im- 
proves the  soil  in  two  ways:  (1)  like  other  legumes,  it  is 
able  through  its  root  bacteria  to  gather  nitrogen  from  the 
air  and  transfer  it  to  the  soil;  and  (2)  its  many  roots, 
coarse  stubble  and  stems,  especially  when  the  latter  are 
plowed  under  as  green  manure,  add  much  humus  to  the 
soil,  making  it  more  porous. 

In  many  parts  of  the  South  cow-peas  are  coming  to  be 
largely  used  in  crop  rotation,  with  cotton  the  principal  crop. 
The  field  is  planted  with  cotton  either  two  or  three  years  in 
succession,  then  a  crop  of  corn  and  cow-peas  grown,  and 
then  a  return  to  cotton.  In  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Tennessee, 
Alabama  and  other  states  of  this  region,  cow-peas  are  being 
successfully  used  in  rotation  with  wheat  and  oats.  An  in- 
crease of  from  fifty  to  more  than  one  hundred  per  cent,  in 
other  crops  following  cow-peas  is  not  uncommon. 


OTHER  LEGUMES  193 

2.    The  Vetches 

The  vetches  are  another  group  of  legumes,  grown  most 
extensively  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  less  commonly  in  the  South, 
and  hardly  at  all  in  the  North.  Michigan,  however,  has 
made  some  excellent  hairy  vetch  crop  records.  Although 
more  than  one  hundred  different  varieties  of  vetch  are 
known,  but  two  are  commonly  grown  in  the  United  States, 
cofnmon  vetch  and  hairy  vetch. 

Common  vetch. — Common  vetch  is  an  annual,  closely 
resembling  the  garden  pea.  Its  stems  are  very  slender, 
and  grow  from  three  to  five  feet  or  more  in  length.  There 
are  many  different  varieties  of  common  vetch,  of  which  the 
gray-seeded-  is  most  commonly  grown  in  this  country. 

Low  temperatures  are  fatal  to  common  vetch ;  it  can  not 
be  successfully  raised  in  regions  where  the  thermometer 
goes  lower  than  about  fifteen  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Hairy  vetch. — Hairy  vetch  is  much  more  hardy  than 
common  vetch,  and  may  be  raised  in  almost  any  portion 
of  the  United  States.  It  finds  its  greatest  use  in  supplying 
a  legume  for  forage  and  improving  the  soil  where  red  clover 
or  alfalfa  does  not  succeed,  or  where  a  short  rotation  crop 
is  desired. 

Hairy  vetch  has  great  power  to  resist  drought,  and 
does  well  on  a  sandy  soil.  It  will  also  thrive  on  a  soil  so 
alkaline  that  most  legumes  refuse  to  grow  on  it. 

3.    Soy-Beans 

Soy-beans  are  native  to  Asia,  where  they  have  been 
grown  from  time  immemorial.  In  China,  India  and  Japan, 
some  two  hundred  varieties  are  cultivated  for  human  food, 
furnishing  a  staple  article  of  diet  in  many  regions.  They 
have  not  proved  palatable  to  Americans,  however,  and  are 
raised  in  this  country  chiefly  as  one  of  our  forage  crops. 


194 


AGRICULTURE 


Hairy  vetcli. 


OTHER  LEGUMES  195 

Where  red  clover  or  alfalfa  can  be  successfully  grown, 
soy-beans  will  have  little  place,  since  they  are  less  profitable. 
They  are'  especially  adapted  to  the  cotton  belt,  however, 
and  to  the  southern  portion  of  the  corn  belt.  Since  soy- 
beans are  drought  resistant,  they  also  grow  well  in  the  semi- 
arid  regions  of  the  West.  They  have  as  yet  made  little 
headway  as  a  crop  in  this  region  because  of  the  ravages  of 
the  rabbits,  which  find  their  foliage  a  savory  delicacy. 

Feeding  value. — The  soy-bean  has  as  great  feeding 
value  for  stock  as  alfalfa,  and  is  worth  more  than  cotton- 
seed-meal as  a  food  for  hogs,  sheep  and  cattle.  The  straw, 
after  all  the  grain  has  been  removed,  is  as  valuable  as  tim- 
othy hay,  and  even  more  palatable  to  most  farm  animals. 

4.     The  Peanut 

Peanuts  are  grown  in  this  country  chiefly  in  the  south 
Atlantic  region.  The  plant  produces  stems  from  one  to  two 
and  one-half  feet  in  length.  It  has  rather  small  leaves, 
growing  three  in  a  cluster.  After  flowering,  the  stems  pen- 
etrate into  the  soil,  where  the  pods  or  nuts  are  produced  be- 
neath the  surface. 

Uses  of  peanuts. — Peanuts  are  produced  largely  for 
their  use  as  human  food.  Besides  the  roasted  nuts  sold  on 
nearly  every  street  corner,  large  quantities  are  made  into 
peanut  butter,  oil,  etc.  The  vines  make  an  excellent  forage 
for  stock.  Certain  varieties  are  grown  in  the  South  ex- 
clusively as  forage  for  hogs. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Secure  if  possible  a  complete  specimen  of  each  of 
the  legumes  described  in  the  chapter.  If  they  are  not  grown 
in  your  vicinity,  write  your  agricultural  college  and  in- 
quire as  to  how  they  may  be  obtained.  Study  each  differ- 
ent plant,  and  learn  to  identify  it. 


196 


AGRICULTURE 


Root  of  a  soy-beau,  showing  bacteria-iuliabited  tubercles. 


OTHER  LEGUMES  197 

2.  Secure  seed  of  each  of  the  legumes  discussed. 
Learn  to  identify  the  seed.  Plant  in  the  school  garden  or 
at  home,  and  watch  the  development  of  the  plant. 

3.  Which  of  these  legumes  could  be  grown  in  your 
region  ?  Would  they  be  profitable  ?  Talk  with  your  father 
about  this.  If  they  would  not  pay,  is  it  because  of  unfa- 
vorable climate,  unsuitable  soil,  or  because  more  profit- 
able legumes  can  be  grown?  If  you  are  not  sure  on  any 
of  these  points,  write  your  agricultural  college. 


CHAPTER  XV 
MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

ALTHOUGH  meadows  and  pastures  claim  more  than 
half  of  all  the  farm  land  of  the  United  States,  they  re- 
ceive far  less  attention  than  any  other  part  of  the  farm. 
About  one- fourth  of  the  acreage  from  which  hay  is  harvested 
is  native  wild  meadow;  this  is  chiefly  located  in  the  newer 
portions  of  the  West.  Pastures  are  often  used  from  year  to 
year  with  no  care  taken  to  improve  them.  Yet  in  many  cases 
meadows  and  pastures  well  repay  the  time  and  expense  nec- 
essary to  make  them  more  productive. 

1.     Meadows 

Requirements  of  a  meadow. — Meadows  are  commonly 
used  for  a  double  purpose — the  production  of  hay,  and 
providing  the  rotation  of  crops  required  to  maintain  the 
fertility  of  the  soil.  It  is  necessary  therefore  to  select  such 
plants  for  the  meadow  as  will  serve  both  of  these  ends. 
This  is  possible  with  our  wide  range  of  grasses  and  legumes 
from  which  to  choose. 

Meadow  plants  should  (1)  yield  well;  (2)  be  palatable; 
(3)  tend  to  improve  the  soil;  (4)  grow  strong  and  thick 
enough  to  keep  down  .the  weeds;  (5)  produce  an  even  firm 
sod,  free  from  high  tufts  or  bunches. 

The  surface  of  the  meadow  should  be  smooth  and  free 
from  obstructions  of  all  kinds  that  will  interfere  with  the 
harvesting  of  the  hay  crop. 

198 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES  199 

Meadow  grasses  and  legumes. — Most  of  our  meadows 
are  mixtures  of  grasses,  or  of  grasses  with  legumes.  Al- 
falfa seems  to  thrive  best  alone,  but  most  meadow  plants 
grow  well  in  company  with  some  other  variety.  Red  or 
crimson  clover  and  timothy,  for  example,  are  commonly 
found  growing  together. 

Several  advantages  come  from  planting  mixed  meadows : 
the  different  plants  draw  their  nourishment  from  various 


%km 


"*i"i?  7'JiWK^!! 


^    :r.^2^ 


Two  profitable   western   industries — dairying   and   fruit-raising 
(State  of  Washington). 

depths  of  the  soil,  thus  using  its  full  strength  more  com- 
pletely and  increasing  the  yield  of  hay ;  mixtures  accommo- 
date themselves  to  peculiarities  of  seasons,  sometimes  one 
grass  and  sometimes  another  thriving  better;  mixed  forage 
provides  variety  for  stock,  making  the  feed  more  palatable 
and  affording  a  wider  range  of  food  elements. 

When  hay  is  raised  for  market  instead  of  being  fed  on 
the  farm,  however,  it  is  often  best  to  devote  the  meadow 
to  one  plant  alone,  thus  producing  what  is  called  a  "pure" 


200  AGRICULTURE 

hay.  Timothy  is  the  favorite  meadow  grass  for  pure  hay, 
and  leads  the  market  in  all  the  great  hay-buying  centers. 
For  working  horses,  timothy  is  thought  by  many  to  be  su- 
perior to  clover  or  to  mixed  forage.  Pure  red  clover  or 
alfalfa  is  often  desired  for  fattening  stock. 

Meadow  mixtures. — The  mixture  to  be  used  in  seed- 
ing a  meadow  will  depend  on  the  climate,  soil  and  use  to 
which  the  forage  is  to  be  put.  Red  clover  and  timothy 
are  the  most  common  mixture  found  throughout  the  north- 
ern states,  the  proportion  of  seed  used  being  about  three- 
fifths  timothy  and  two-fifths  clover.  For  damp  undrained 
soil,  alsike  clover  is  substituted  for  red  clover,  or  mixed 
with  it.  A  very  common  mixture  for  average  soils  is  the 
following  amounts  per  acre: 

Timothy    .- 15  pounds 

Red  clover 6 

Alsike  clover 4        " 

This  combination  will  produce  about  a  half-and-half  mix- 
ture of  hay  the  first  year,  with  timothy  predominating  the 
second  year,  and  pure  timothy  thereafter.  On  very  wet 
soils,  red- top  may  be  substituted  for  the  red  clover.  If  the 
soil  is  also  strong  in  acid,  it  is  best  to  omit  both  clovers, 
and  use  the  red-top  with  the  timothy. 

Care  of  meadows. — Under  our  system  of  rotation  of 
crops  meadows  are  usually  not  left  down  more  than  from 
two  to  four  years,  with  sometimes  a  year  or  two  of  pastur- 
ing before  the  sod  is  broken  up  for  other  crops.  Most  of 
our  meadows  are  therefore  new  and,  like  a  strawberry  bed, 
must  be  constantly  remade. 

One  of  the  chief  enemies  of  the  meadow  is  weeds.  They 
not  only  hinder  the  newly  seeded  meadow  from  getting  a 
good  start,  but  injure  the  value  of  hay,  reducing  the  mar- 
ket price.     If  allowed  to  grow  in  the  meadow  from  year 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES  201 

to  year,  the  weeds  will  also  leave  the  soil  foul  for  the  crops 
that  follow  when  the  meadow  is  again  tilled. 

Spring  seeded  meadows  should  not  be  pastured  the  fol- 
lowing fall  even  if  the  plants  look  thriving.  This  is  sure 
to  reduce  the  yield  of  hay  the  following  season,  and  may 
cause  the  plants  to  winter  kill  by  exposing  the  roots.     The 


Stacking  by  means  of  modern  machinery  saves  much  labor. 

aftermath,  or  second  growth,  on  older  meadows  may  be 
pastured,  though  it  does  not  pay  to  feed  them  close.  Es- 
pecially should  new  meadows  not  be  trampled  by  stock 
while  wet. 

Permanent  meadows. — Many  meadows  are  located  on 
wet  ground,  or  on  soil  that  for  some  reason  is  not  cropped. 
In  other  cases  there  is  neglect  to  rotate  the  meadow  land 
with  the  remainder  of  the  fields  in  the  crop  series.     It  is 


202  AGRICULTURE 

often  found  that  meadows  that  are  thus  left  for  a  number 
of  years  have  a  tendency  to  "run  out." 

The  yield  of  hay  on  almost  any  meadow  left  without 
attention  for  several  years  decreases  from  one-third  to  one- 
half.  Weeds  begin  to  appear,  and  patches  here  and  there 
become  thin  or  die  out.  The  less  desirable  grasses  crowd 
out  the  better  ones.  Such  a  meadow  is  highly  unprofitable. 
If  tillable,  it  should  be  plowed  up  and  put  into  other  crops. 
If  not,  it  should  be  improved  and  its  quality  kept  up. 

It  is  not  hard  to  keep  permanent  meadows  in  a  state 
of  high  production,  but  it  requires  some  labor  and  expense. 
The  following  treatment  will  do  much  to  keep  permanent 
meadows  in  good  condition:  (1)  No  weeds  are  to  be  al- 
lowed to  go  to  seed;  (2)- if  the  soil  is  run  down,  the  field 
should  be  manured  or  other  fertilizer  used  on  it ;  (3)  the 
soil  should  be  loosened  and  the  sod-bound  condition  relieved 
by  disking ;  (4)  fresh  pure  grass  seed  should  be  scattered, 
especially  over  thin  or  weedy  places. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  What  proportion  of  your  father's  farm  is  in  mead- 
ow? In  pasture?  Compare  with  all  the  farms  represented 
in  the  school. 

2.  How  many  different  meadows  on  your  home  farm? 
How  long  has  each  been  down?  Which  are  the  more  suc- 
cessful, the  older  or  the  newer  ones?    Why? 

3.  Make  a  collection  of  the  different  meadow  plants 
produced  on  your  home  meadows.  How  many  different 
kinds  of  grasses?  How  many  legumes?  Do  you  find  any 
grasses  that  were  not  sown,  but  which  have  come  in  of 
their  own  accord?  Learn  to  identify  each  different  grass 
and  its  seed  in  your  meadows. 

4.  Make  a  collection  of  the  most  troublesome  weeds 
found  in  your  meadows.  Learn  to  identify  both  plants  and 
seeds.  How  many  farmers  in  your  region  cut  down  the 
weeds  on  their  meadows  to  keep  them  from  going  to  seed? 

5.  Go  out  into  some  meadow  near  by  and  examine  it 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES  203 

for  the  five  qualities  specified  for  meadows.  What  was 
the  yield  per  acre  ?  Is  red-top  as  palatable  for  stock  as  tim- 
othy? As  clover?  As  cow-peas?  Does  timothy  improve 
the  soil? 

2.    Pastures 

More  improved  farm  land  is  devoted  to  pastures  than 
to  any  cultivated  crop.  Pasturage  supplies  the  greater  pro- 
portion of  the  feed  for  the  production  of  milk,  butter,  beef, 
mutton  and  wool  and  is  an  important  factor  in  the  produc- 
tion of  poultry  and  pork.  The  annual  value  of  our  pastur- 
age is  more  than  that  of  any  other  crop  raised. 

Requirements  of  a  pasture. — Pastures  should  possess 
in  general  the  same  qualities  as  meadows.  They  should 
(1)  yield  well;  (2)  have  such  grasses  as  will  start  early 
and  continue  to  grow  late;  (3)  be  palatable  and  nutritious 
to  stock ;  (4)  form  a  firm  tough  sod  that  will  stand  tramp- 
ling; (5)  have  fine  rather  than  coarse  grasses;  and  (6)  be 
free  from  weeds. 

Pasture  grasses  and  legumes. — The  best  meadow 
grasses  are  not  always  the  best  pasture  grasses.  For  ex- 
ample, timothy,  the  queen  of  hay  grasses,  is  too  coarse 
when  used  alone  for  the  best  pasture  grass,  and  does  not 
stand  trampling  so  well  as  some  others. 

Pastures  should  usually  be  made  of  a  mixture  of  plants. 
This  will  provide  some  varieties  that  start  earlier  than 
others,  root  at  different  depths,  adjust  themselves  to  various 
kinds  of  seasons,  supply  variety  for  stock,  and  endure  longer 
without  running  out.  Pasture  mixtures  should  contain  a 
much  greater  variety  than  meadow  mixtures. 

Pasture  mixtures. — Over  the  greater  portion  of  the 
United  States  north  of  the  cotton  belt  and  the  region  west  of 
the  Missouri  River,  Kentucky  blue-grass  and  white  clover 
are  the  most  common  and  valuable  pasture  grasses.  No  mat- 
ter what  mixture  is  sown,  one  or  both  of  these  grasses  is 


204  AGRICULTURE 

sure  to  make  its  appearance,  and  gradually  force  most 
other  grasses  out.  When  blue-grass  and  white  clover  have 
taken  possesion  of  a  pasture  they  grow  reasonably  well  to- 
gether, though  in  some  seasons  one  of  them  will  predomi- 
nate, and  again  the  other. 

Throughout  the  South,  Bermuda  grass  is  the  chief  pas- 
ture plant,  though  it  is  commonly  mixed  with  Rhodes  grass 
for  dry  soils  and  with  orchard  grass  for  wet  regions. 
Red-top  is  successful  on  wet  heavy  soil. 

For  starting  a  pasture  on  good  land  in  northern  regions, 
a  mixture  may  be  made  of  something  like  the  following 
proportions : 

Timothy    10  pounds 

Red  clover 3 

Alsike  clover 2 

White  clover 2 

Kentucky  blue-grass 3 

Brome-grass    2 

Meadow  fescue 2 

Orchard  grass 2 

This  will  make  sufficient  seed  for  one  acre.  If  the  pas- 
ture is  on  very  wet  undrained  land,  the  red  clover  may 
be  omitted  and  red-top  substituted  in  its  stead.  Even  though 
timothy  will  soon  be  driven  out  by  blue-grass  and  white 
clover,  it  should  head  the  mixture  as  it  roots  more  quickly 
than  the  others,  and  acts  as  a  cover  crop  while  the  sjower 
grasses  are  getting  started. 

Care  of  pastures. — If  permanent  pastures  are  to  be 
kept  up  to  a  high  state  of  efficiency  they  demand  even 
more  care  than  meadows. 

On  fairly  good  soils,  pastures  do  not  usually  require 
manuring,  though  a  light  coat  of  manure  will  increase  the 
yield  of  any  pasture.  Nearly  every  pasture  needs  the  as- 
sistance of  a  mower  to  keep  down  the  weeds.    This  is  be- 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES  205 

cause  stock  do  not  find  most  weeds  palatable,  and  so  eat 
the  grass,  leaving  the  weeds  to  flourish.  Many  pastures 
are  thickly  sprinkled  with  weeds  which  not  only  rob  the 
soil  but  prevent  cattle  from  eating  the  grass  growing 
close  to  their  roots,  thus  adding  to  the  waste.  Weeds 
should  be  cut  from  the  pasture  each  year  before  they  bear 
seed. 

Grazing  stock  not  only  reject  the  weeds  for  the  more 


Baling  hay  in  the  West  directly  from  the  meadow. 

palatable  grass,  but  also  have  their  preference  among 
grasses.  All  have  noted  that  the  uplands  in  a  pasture  are 
grazed  close,  while  low  wet  areas  are  hardly  touched.  In 
many  cases  the  low  parts  of  a  pasture  are  almost  wasted, 
because  the  red-top  and  other  wet-soil  grasses  are  less 
palatable  than  the  blue-grass  and  clovers  which  thrive  only 
on  well  drained  soil.  Such  marshy  places  should  be  drained ; 
the  better  pasture  grasses  will  then  soon  take  possession. 

Pastures,  like  meadows,  may  become  sod-bound.  Almost 
every  pasture  can  be  improved  by  disking  or  cultivating 
with  a  knife-toothed  harrow.     When  this   is  done,   fresh 


206  AGRICULTURE 

grass  seed  should  be  scattered  on  thin  places  or  a  desirable 
new  variety  added  to  the  plants  already  established. 

After  being  grazed,  pastures  grow  better  if  they  have 
a  rest  during  the  wet  season  from  trampling  and  crop- 
ping. It  is  therefore  best  to  have  two  pastures,  using  them 
alternately,  instead  of  feeding  the  one  continuously  through- 
out the  season.  Such  an  arrangement  usually  requires  only 
the  expense  of  a  partition  fence,  which  the  increased  yield 
and  comfort  to  animals  from  the  pasture  will  well  repay. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  What  is  the  age  of  the  different  pastures  on  your 
father's  farm?  What  is  the  predominating  grass?  What 
other  grasses  are  in  the  mixture  ? 

2.  Is  there  a  pasture  near  by  consisting  of  both  upland 
and  marsh  land?  If  so,  which  is  the  more  closely  cropped? 
Secure  samples  of  the  grass  from  each  part;  what  grass 
predominates  in  each  case  ?  Would  it  not  pay  to  drain  the 
wet  portion  ? 

3.  Make  a  study  of  the  pastures  represented  at  the 
school  for  the  weeds  growing  in  them.  What  proportion 
of  the  pastures  may  be  called  weedy  ?  What  weeds  predom- 
inate ?    Are  they  ever  mowed  ? 

4.  How  many  of  the  farmers  in  your  vicinity  follow 
the  plan  of  dividing  their  pasture,  so  that  the  one  part  may 
rest  while  the  other  is  being  used?  If  this  is  not  done  at 
your  home,  figure  the  cost  of  running  a  division  fence  so 
that  it  would  be  possible.  Talk  with  your  father  about  the 
cost  of  the  fence. 

5.  Are  any  of  the  pastures  in  your  region  ever  disked 
to  loosen  the  sod?  Is  new  seed  ever  sown  on  them?  Do 
you  think  any  of  them  are  sod-bound  ?    How  can  you  tell  ? 

6.  What  is  the  cost  per  rod  of  laying  field  tile  in  your 
vicinity?  Investigate  any  wet  areas  on  your  home  pasture 
where  the  grass  is  rejected  by  the  stock,  and  determine  how 
many  rods  of  drainage  would  be  required  to  make  the  soil 
tillable.  Suppose  draining  would  double  the  feeding  value 
of  such  an  area,  would  the  drain  pay  good  interest  on  its 
cost  ?    Figure  this  all  out  and  talk  with  your  father  about  it. 


PART  11.    HORTICULTURE 


CHAPTER  XVI 
THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

THE  South  is  somewhat  behind  the  North  and  West  in 
the  raising  of  garden  vegetables  for  the  home  table.  Yet 
vegetables  are  one  of  the  cheapest  and  most  necessary  arti- 
cles of  food.  Not  only  are  they  palatable,  but  they  add  va- 
riety to  our  tables  and  supply  certain  food  elements  not 
obtained  from  other  foods.  The  vegetable  garden  can  be 
made  the  most  profitable  part  of  the  farm.  It  is  safe  to  say 
that  a  garden  may  be  made  to  yield  at  least  from  eight  to 
ten  times  as  great  returns  as  the  same  amount  of  land 
planted  to  cotton  or  other  farm  crops.  Most  regions  of  the 
South  are  especially  well  adapted  to  gardening,  since  the 
long  growing  season  will  allow  a  succession  of  crops  almost 
throughout  the  year.  More  attention  to  this  important  phase 
of  agriculture  would  therefore  be  profitable,  would  add  to 
our  supply  of  fresh  and  palatable  food,  and  would  save 
both  drug  and  doctors'  bills  by  supplying  a  better  balanced 
and  more  healthful  diet. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.     Measure  your  home  garden  and  find  the  amount  of 
space  devoted  to  vegetables  this    season.     Make  a  com- 
parison with  other  members  of  the  class.     Compute  the 
average  size  of  vegetable  gardens  for  the  neighborhood. 
15  207 


208  AGRICULTURE 

2.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  different  vegetables  raised  in 
your  home  garden  this  year.  How  many  different  kinds? 
What  proportion  of  the  space  was  devoted  to  each?  (Com- 
pare the  number  of  different  kinds  and  the  proportion  of 
each  with  the  garden  plan  shown  on  page  209.) 

1.    Plan  of  the  Vegetable  Garden 

The  vegetable  garden  should  be  carefully  planned  be- 
fore time  to  begin  planting,  and  a  diagram  made  allotting 
to  each  crop  its  location  and  proper  amount  of  space.  This 
will  save  time  in  putting  in  the  crop  and  insure  a  better 
arrangement. 

The  plan. — A  well-planned  garden  provides  (1)  for  a 
succession  of  crops  supplying  the  table  with  fresh  vegetables 
practically  all  the  year,  and  by  means  of  cold  storage  and 
hom.e  canning,  throughout  the  winter  in  the  South,  as  well 
as  during  the  spring  and  summer.  This  can  be  accom- 
plished by  selecting  a  reasonably  wide  range  of  crops  and 
by  successive  plantings  of  certain  kinds. 

(2)  The  right  proportion  of  space  should  be  allowed 
for  each  vegetable,  depending  on  the  tastes  of  the  family 
and  allowing  for  the  canning  of  a  supply  for  home  use.  As 
a  result  of  careless  planning  an  over-supply  of  one  vegeta- 
ble often  results  in  loss  and  waste. 

(3)  The  crops  should  be  arranged  in  the  order  of  their 
time  of  planting,  so  that  the  planting  can  begin  at  one  side 
of  the  garden  in  the  early  spring,  and  proceed  across  until 
all  are  in.  This  arrangement  saves  much  labor  in  culti- 
\^tion  without  interfering  with  crops  already  planted. 

(4)  If  the  cultivation  is  to  be  done  with  horse  imple- 
ments, as  it  should  be  in  all  larger  gardens,  the  rows  should 
run  the  long  way,  and  a  turf  turning  ground  be  left  at  each 
end.  It  also  pays  to  place  in  each  row  plants  that  re- 
quire the  same  kind  of  cultivation  and  that  mature  in  about 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 
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210  AGRICULTURE 

the  same  time  so  that  together  they  will  get  out  of  the 
way  of  later  plantings.  Spade  and  refertilize  and  plant  all 
vacant  space.  Allow  no  idle  land  even  to  the  extent  of  a 
square  foot. 

Planting  time  and  maturity. — The  time  required  for 
growth  and  the  date  of  planting  the  common  garden  vegeta- 


The  boy  with  a  hoe.     Back-yard  gardening  in  Washington,  D.  C. 

bles   recommended  by  the  United    States   Department   of 
Agriculture  are  shown  on  page  211. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Make  a  careful  diagram  of  your  home  garden  plot 
showing  its  exact  length  and  breadth.  Now  make  a  plan 
for  this  plot  similar  to  the  one  shown  on  page  209,  being 
careful  to  preserve  the* planting  order  from  one  side  to  the 
other.  What  plants  would  you  add  which  are  not  shown  in 
the  sample  garden  ?  Would  you  leave  any  out  ?  What  sub- 
stitutions would  you  make  better  to  suit  your  locality  ? 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


211 


Kind  of 

Time  of  planting 

Ready  fob  use 

Vegetable 

South 

North 

after  planting 

Asparagus 

Fall  or  early 
spring 

Early   spring 

1  to  3  years 

Beans,   bush 

Feb.  to  Apr. 
(Aug.  to  Sept.) 

Apr.  to  July 

40  to  65  days 

Beans,  pole 

Late  spring 

May  and  June 

50  to  80  days 

Beets 

Feb.  to  Apr. 
(Aug.  to  Sept.) 

Apr.   to  Aug. 

60  to  80  days 

Brussels  sprouts 

Jan.  to  July 

May  and  June 

90  to  120  days 

Cabbage,   early- 

Oct.  to  Dec. 

Mar.  and  Apr. 

90  to  130  days 

Cabbage,  late 

June  and  July 

May  and  June 

90  to  130  days 

Carrots 

Mar.  Apr.  Sept. 

Apr.  to  June 

75  to  110  days 

Cauliflower 

Jan.    Feb.    June 

Apr.  to  June 

100  to  130  days 

Celery- 

Aug.  to  Oct. 

May  and  June 

120  to  150  days 

Corn,   sweet 

Feb.   to   Apr. 

May  to  July 

60   to  100  days 

Cucumbers 

Feb.  Mch.  Sept. 

Apr.   to   July 

60  to  80  days 

Dasheen 

Mar.  to  Apr. 

Apr.  to  July 

140  to  180  days 

Eggplant 

Feb.  to  Apr. 

Apr.  and  May 

100  to  140  days 

French  endive 

May  to  Oct. 

May  to  June 

100  to  130  days 

Horseradish 

Early  spring 

Early    spring 

1  to  2  years 

Lettuce 

Sept.  to  Mar. 

March  to  Sept. 

60  to  90  days 

Melon,  muskmelon 

^  Feb.  to  Apr. 

Apr.  to  June 

120  to  150  days 

Melon,  watermelon  Mar.  to  May- 

May  and  June 

100  to  120  days 

Onions,  seed 

Oct.  to   Mar. 

Apr.    and    May 

130  to  150  days 

Onion,sets 

Early   spring 

Fall,  Feb.  to  May  90  to  120  days 

Peas 

Sept.   to  Apr. 

March  to  June 

40  to  80  days 

Peppers  (all) 

Early  spring 

May  and   June 

100  to  140  days 

Potatoes,    Irish 

Jan.  to  Apr. 

March  to  June 

80  to  140  days 

Pumpkins 

April  and  May 

May  to  July 

100  to  140  days 

Radishes 

Sept.  to  Apr. 

March  to  Sept. 

20  to  40  days 

Rhubarb,  plants 

Sept.  to  Apr. 

Fall  or  spring 

1  to  3  years 

Salsify 

Sept.  to  Apr. 

Early  spring 

120  to  180  days 

Squash,  bush 

Spring 

April  to  June 

60  to  80  days 

Squash,   late 

Spring 

April  to  June 

120  to  160  days 

Swiss  chard 

Feb.   to  Apr. 

Apr.  to  Aug. 

60  to  80  days 

Tomatoes 

Dec.  to  Mar. 

May  and  June 

60  to  80  days 

Turnips 

Aug.  to  Oct. 

April    (July) 

100  to  140  days 

Chinese  cabbage 

May  to  July 

March  to  Aug. 

60  to  100  days 

Fennel 

May  to  July 

March  to  Aug. 

60  to  100  days 

212  AGRICULTURE 

2.  How  many  plantings  of  radishes  were  made  in  your 
garden?  Of  lettuce?  Of  peas?  Of  beans?  Of  sweet 
corn?    Of  greens? 

3.  Is  your  garden  manured  every  year  ?  Is  the  soil  in 
good  condition  and  free  from  weeds?  Is  rubbish  allowed 
to  remain  on  the  garden  over  winter,  thereby  making  a 
harbor  for  insects  ? 


Members  of  Market  Garden  and  Home  Canning  Club  packing 
vegetables  for  parcel-post  shipment. 

2.     Culture  of  the  Garden  Crops 

Most  of  the  vegetables  named  in  the  precedmg  section 
can  be  raised  without  technical  training  in  their  cultiva- 
tion. A  few,  however,  must  have  special  treatment  if  they 
are  to  succeed,  and  if  there  is  not  time  to  give  them  this 
extra  attention  they  would  better  be  left  out  of  the  garden 
plan. 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


213 


Typical    dablietu    hill,   a   new   vegetable    substitute   for   the 
potato  for  the  South  and  Southwest. 


216 


AGRICULTURE 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  217 

In  raising  the  hotbed  crop  care  must  be  taken  to  lift 
the  sash  during  the  warm  part  of  bright  days,  and  also 
to  water  sufficiently.  Watering  should  be  done  in  the 
morning  on  sunny  days,  otherwise  the  cooling  may  chill  the 
plants.  If  the  temperature  grows  too  high  the  sash  must 
be  lifted,  or  the  plants  will  be  destroyed. 

Transplanting. — When  the  time  comes  for  transplant- 
ing to  the  open  soil  care  must  be  used  or  the  change  may 
kill  the  tender  plants  or  greatly  check  their  growth.  To 
avoid  thi-s  hotbed  plants  are  often  transplanted  to  another 
bed,  called  a  cold-frame,  covered  with  glass  but  not  heated. 
This  is  known  as  the  "hardening  off"  process.  Transplant- 
ing almost  any  plant  is  of  great  advantage  since  it  causes 
the  multiplication  of  many  small  roots  which  add  to  its 
growth. 

Vegetables  that  require  special  treatment. — ^The 
larger  and  later  varieties  of  peas  grow  so  high  that  they 
require  support,  so  they  will  not  spread  out  on  the  ground 
and  the  pods  rot.  Where  an  abundance  of  brush  is  avail- 
able, rods  may  be  stuck  in  the  ground  for  them  to  run  on. 
Woven  chicken  wire  is  an  excellent  substitute  and  takes 
much  less  time.  Lima  beans  also  need  poles.  Because  of 
this,  bush  varieties  are  sometimes  grown  in  their  stead. 

Celery  and  French  endive,  as  well  as  most  head  lettuce 
varieties  require  bleaching  to  produce  the  best  results. 
To  accomplish  this,  the  plants  are  usually  set  at  the  bot- 
tom of  a  trench  which  is  gradually  filled  in  as  the  plants 
grow ;  or  the  outer  leaves  may  be  folded  up  and  tied  around 
the  heart  of  the  plant  to  shade  it  from  the  sun.  At  the  end 
of  the  season  the  rows  may  be  hilled  up  so  that  the  plants 
are  covered  to  the  top. 


218 


AGRICULTURE 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  219 

3.    Insect  Enemies  of  the  Vegetable  Garden 

Fortunately,  most  of  the  garden  vegetables  are  not  sub- 
ject to  great  injury  from  insects.  Certain  plants  are,  how- 
ever, special  targets  for  these  pests,  anU  must  be  protected 
or  they  will  almost  certainly  be  destroyed. 

The  most  common  enemy  of  cabbage  and  cauliflower  is 
the  cabbage-worm,  which  is  the  larvae  of  the  common  white 
butterfly  seen  about  the  cabbage  patches.  The  most  ef- 
fective remedy  is  spraying  with  the  arsenate  of  lead  prep- 
aration, made  by  mixing  three  pounds  of  the  paste  with  fifty 
gallons  of  water.  To  this  should  be  added  a  mixture  of 
resin  and  lime,  or  soap,  to  cause  the  insecticide  to  stick  to 
the  leaves. 

The  cucumber  beetle. — The  worst  enemy  of  cucum- 
bers is  a  small  striped  beetle  which  eats  the  leaves  of  the 
young  plants.  When  only  a  few  hills  are  raised  they  may 
be  kept  off  the  plants  by  making  a  small  wooden  frame 
over  which  is  stretched  wire  mosquito  netting,  and  plac- 
ing these  boxes  over  the  hills.  These  pests  can  also  be 
controlled  by  spraying  with  the  arsenate  of  lead  compound. 
The  roots  of  the  plants  are  sometimes  attacked  by  the 
larvae  of  the  beetle.  Tobacco  dust  sprinkled  on  the  roots 
is  an  effective  remedy. 

The  cucumber  beetle  is  also  the  most  troublesome  enemy 
of  squash,  muskmelons  and  watermelons.  These  plants 
may  be  protected  in  the  same  way  as  the  cucumber. 

The  aphis. — The  aphis,  a  small  green  fly,  is  a  sucking 
insect  that -attacks  lettuce,  peas  and  other  green  leaf  crops. 
It  is  also  frequently  found  on  flowering  shrubs.  It  may 
be  controlled  by  spraying  with  a  mixture  of  soap  and  water, 
or  with  a  nicofume  preparation  mixed  according  to  direc- 
tions on  the  package. 

The  cutworm. — The   cutworm   attacks  a   number  of 


220 


AGRICULTURE 


The  white  grub ;    (A)  pupa;  (B)  beetle;  (C)  larvu. 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  221 

different  vegetables,  cutting  them  off  just  at  or  near  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  The  remedy  is  fall  plowing,  and  poi- 
soning. An  effective  method  of  attracting  to  the  poison  is  to 
dip  clover  blossoms  in  Paris  green,  or  add  Paris  green  to  a 
mixture  of  bran  and  molasses,  and  strew  around  the  roots 

of  the  plants. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Which  of  your  garden  crops  have  been  most  at- 
tacked by  insects?  Have  you  used  any  of  the  spray  com- 
pounds as  a  remedy?  If  so,  what  ones,  and  for  what 
insects?  Was  it  successful?  Do  you  know  how  to  mix  and 
apply  the  more  common  insecticides? 

2.  Talk  with  your  father  and  mother  and  plan  your 
home  vegetable  garden  for  next  season.  Bring  your  plans 
to  school,  and  compare  the  different  plans  presented  to 
determine  the  best. 

3.  Prepare  a  plan  and  specifications  for  a  small  hot- 
house which  can  be  heated  with  an  old  stove  or  from  the 
house  heating  plant. 

4.  Show  how  to  keep  a  garden  account  for  a  season ;  at 
least  six  different  kinds  of  products  should  be  included  in 
the  items. 

5.  Make  a  map  of  the  United  States  and  show  the 
most  important  vegetables  grown  in  each  section.  Com- 
pare the  vegetable  garden  products  of  the  Pacific  Coast  with 
those  of  the  Atlantic  Coast ;  the  northern  tier  of  states  with 
the  cotton  belt  states. 

4.     Garden  Demonstrations 

1.  Demonstrate  how  to  prepare,  pack  and  ship  vegeta- 
bles by  parcel  post. 

2.  Show  how  to  make  different  types  of  boxes  for  mar- 
keting products. 

3.  Demonstrate  how  to  make  a  home-made  canning 
outfit,  by  using  wash  boiler,  garbage  bucket,  pail  and  tub. 

4.  Show  how  to  can  vegetables  by  the  cold-pack  method. 
(See  Chapter  XX,  on  Home  Canning.) 

5.  Demonstrate  how  to  mix  garden  sprays  and  how  to 
tise  them. 


222 


AGRICULTURE 


A  Pasadena,  California,  school  vegetable  garden 


School  gardens,  Portland,  Oregon.    Home  gardens  their  des* 
tiny. 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  223 

6.  Demonstrate  how  to  make  a  few  vegetable  dishes  and 
how  to  serve  them. 

5.     Garden  Play  Contests 
All   contests  with   garden  products   should  be   a  com- 
bination of  play  with  helpful  practise  and  instruction. 

1.  Vegetable  judging  contests. 

2.  Story  contest.  Tell  origin  and  life  history  of  dif- 
ferent vegetables  such  as  tomato,  swiss  chard,  sweet  corn. 

3.  Vegetable  spelling  contest. 

4.  Vegetable  drawing  contest.  Place  on  stand  before 
contestants  a  number  of  vegetables  and  have  them  draw 
them. 

5.  Vegetable  canning  contest. 

6.  Paring,  labeling  and  packing  contests. 

6.  Home  Garden  and  Canning  Club  Projects 
One  of  the  most  interesting  of  club  projects  in  connec- 
tion with  the  public  schools  is  the  work  of  the  home  gar- 
den and  canning  club.  This  can  be  undertaken  in  much 
the  same  way  in  both  city  and  rural  territory.  The  club 
plat  should  be  operated  on  a  business  basis,  and  should  be 
large  enough  to  make  possible  an  attractive  net  profit  on 
the  investment  of  time,  money  and  energy  of  the  member. 
Club  members  should  range  in  age  from  ten  to  eighteen 
years,  inclusive,  and  be  divided  into  two  classes  denominated 
as  senior  and  junior  gardeners.  The  basis  of  award  for 
school  credit  or  prizes  may  be  as  follows: 

1.  Yield  of   garden 20 

2.  Net  profit  on  investment 20 

3.  Variety  of  vegetables,  appearance  of  garden 20 

4.  Exhibit  of  products,  fresh  and  canned 20 

5.  Record  and  story,  "How  I  Made  My  Crop" 20 

Total    score 100 

16 


CHAPTER  XVII 
CULTURE  OF  FRUITS  AND  NUTS 

FRUIT  and  nut  farming  have  in  recent  years  enjoyed  a 
remarkable  growth.  The  home  fruit  garden  is  coming 
to  be  considered  no  less  important  than  the  vegetable  gar- 
den, and  large  commercial  orchards  are  now  an  important 
factor  on  many  of  the  reclamation  projects  of  the  semi-arid 
regions  of  the  West  and  Southwest.  Millions  of  acres  of 
land  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  especially  in  the 
South  and  in  the  dry  regions  are  yet  available  for  the  fruit 
and  nut  industry.  The  use  of  fruits  and  nuts  as  a  part  of 
the  daily  food  supply  is  also  rapidly  extending  to  include 
almost  every  family  in  both  this  country  and  Europe. 

1.     The  Home  Fruit  Garden 

The  home  fruit  garden,  like  the  vegetable  garden,  should 
be  planned  for  cultivation  by  means  of  horses.  The  rows 
should  therefore  run  the  long  way  of  the  garden.  The 
fruit  garden  may  well  join  the  vegetable  garden,  and  be 
approximately  the  same  size,  about  ninety  by  two  hundred 
and  forty  feet  for  a  farm  garden.  The  entire  plat  will 
then  contain  approximately  one  acre  of  ground. 

All  fruit  trees  should  be  treated  with  a  dormant  spray, 
applied  at  some  time  during  the  dormant  season.  A  sec- 
ond spraying  should  be  applied  just  after  the  leaf  buds 
burst,  and  a  third  at  blossoming  time.  Apples  should  be 
sprayed  just  as  the  petals  fall,  and  pears  just  before  the 
blossoms  open.     It  is   fully  as  important  to  spray  at  the 

224 


CULTURE  OF  FRUITS  AND  NUTS  225 

right  time  as  to  use  the  right  mixture.  The  successful 
gardener  must  understand  his  fruit  trees  and  the  habits  of 
their  enemies. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Make  a  Hst  of  all  your  home  fruits  by  varieties. 

2.  Is  your  fruit  garden  well  cultivated  and  free  from 
weeds?  Are  any  of  the  plants  sod-bound?  Is  mulching 
used? 

3.  Learn  to  identify  surely  and  quickly  each  of  the 
different  fruit  trees,  shrubs  and  vines,  either  when  in 
foliage  or  dormant. 

4.  Go  with  your  teacher  or  some  expert  gardener  to 
some  near-by  fruit  garden  and  learn  how  and  why  the  dif- 
ferent plants  should  be  pruned.  Is  your  home  orchard  well 
pruned  ? 

5.  Bring  specimen  branches  or  stems  of  the  different 
garden  fruits  and  show  where  and  how  the  fruit  is  borne. 
Make  a  drawing  in  each  case. 

6.  Is  your  fruit  garden  regularly  sprayed?  What  kind 
of  spray  machine  is  used?  What  mixtures?  What  ene- 
mies are  most  troublesome  in  the  case  of  each  fruit? 

7.  Make  a  collection  of  all  the  different  insects  and 
fungi  you  can  find  that  damage  fruit  in  your  region.  Learn 
to  identify  each.    What  spray  is  used  for  each? 

8.  Estimate  the  value  of  the  fruit  produced  in  your 
home  garden  last  year.  Did  it  pay  for  the  ground  occu- 
pied, the  expense  and  the  time  used  ?  How  can  the  amount 
of  fruit  and  its  net  profit  be  increased?  What  are  your 
plans  in  this  direction  for  next  year  ? 

2.     Commercial  Citrus  Fruit  Orchards 

The  citrus  fruits  constitute  one  of  our  most  important 
orchard  crops.  The  orange,  the  lemon  and  the  grapefruit 
are  coming  into  even  greater  use  than  the  apple  or  other 
staple  fruits.  The  lime  and  the  tangarine  are  also  growing 
in  favor,  and  are  finding  a  place  in  the  citrus  orchards 


CHAPTER  XVII 
CULTURE  OF  FRUITS  AND  NUTS 

FRUIT  and  nut  farming  have  in  recent  years  enjoyed  a 
remarkable  growth.  The  home  fruit  garden  is  coming 
to  be  considered  no  less  important  than  the  vegetable  gar- 
den, and  large  commercial  orchards  are  now  an  important 
factor  on  many  of  the  reclamation  projects  of  the  semi-arid 
regions  of  the  West  and  Southwest.  Millions  of  acres  of 
land  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  especially  in  the 
South  and  in  the  dry  regions  are  yet  available  for  the  fruit 
and  nut  industry.  The  use  of  fruits  and  nuts  as  a  part  of 
the  daily  food  supply  is  also  rapidly  extending  to  include 
almost  every  family  in  both  this  country  and  Europe. 

1.     The  Home  Fruit  Garden 

The  home  fruit  garden,  like  the  vegetable  garden,  should 
be  planned  for  cultivation  by  means  of  horses.  The  rows 
should  therefore  run  the  long  way  of  the  garden.  The 
fruit  garden  may  well  join  the  vegetable  garden,  and  be 
approximately  the  same  size,  about  ninety  by  two  hundred 
and  forty  feet  for  a  farm  garden.  The  entire  plat  will 
then  contain  approximately  one  acre  of  ground. 

All  fruit  trees  should  be  treated  with  a  dormant  spray, 
applied  at  some  time  during  the  dormant  season.  A  sec- 
ond spraying  should  be  applied  just  after  the  leaf  buds 
burst,  and  a  third  at  blossoming  time.  Apples  should  be 
sprayed  just  as  the  petals  fall,  and  pears  just  before  the 
blossoms  open.     It  is   fully  as  important  to  spray  at  the 

224 


CULTURE  OF  FRUITS  AND  NUTS  225 

right  time  as  to  use  the  right  mixture.  The  successful 
gardener  must  understand  his  fruit  trees  and  the  habits  of 
their  enemies. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Make  a  Hst  of  all  your  home  fruits  by  varieties. 

2.  Is  your  fruit  garden  well  cultivated  and  free  from 
weeds?  Are  any  of  the  plants  sod-bound?  Is  mulching 
used? 

3.  Learn  to  identify  surely  and  quickly  each  of  the 
different  fruit  trees,  shrubs  and  vines,  either  when  in 
foliage  or  dormant. 

4.  Go  with  your  teacher  or  some  expert  gardener  to 
some  near-by  fruit  garden  and  learn  how  and  why  the  dif- 
ferent plants  should  be  pruned.  Is  your  home  orchard  well 
pruned  ? 

5.  Bring  specimen  branches  or  stems  of  the  different 
garden  fruits  and  show  where  and  how  the  fruit  is  borne. 
Make  a  drawing  in  each  case. 

6.  Is  your  fruit  garden  regularly  sprayed?  What  kind 
of  spray  machine  is  used?  What  mixtures?  What  ene- 
mies are  most  troublesome  in  the  case  of  each  fruit? 

7.  Make  a  collection  of  all  the  different  insects  and 
fungi  you  can  find  that  damage  fruit  in  your  region.  Learn 
to  identify  each.    What  spray  is  used  for  each? 

8.  Estimate  the  value  of  the  fruit  produced  in  your 
home  garden  last  year.  Did  it  pay  for  the  ground  occu- 
pied, the  expense  and  the  time  used  ?  How  can  the  amount 
of  fruit  and  its  net  profit  be  increased?  What  are  your 
plans  in  this  direction  for  next  year  ? 

2.     Commercial  Citrus  Fruit  Orchards 

The  citrus  fruits  constitute  one  of  our  most  important 
orchard  crops.  The  orange,  the  lemon  and  the  grapefruit 
are  coming  into  even  greater  use  than  the  apple  or  other 
staple  fruits.  The  lime  and  the  tangarine  are  also  growing 
in  favor,  and  are  finding  a  place  in  the  citrus  orchards 


226 


AGRICULTURE 


of  the  South  and  Southwest.  Improvement  in  transporta- 
tion and  the  use  of  refrigerator  cars  make  it  possible  to 
deliver  these  subtropical  fruits  to  any  part  of  the  country 
in  perfect  condition.  The  citrus  fruit  industry  is  a  highly 
specialized  business,  and  requires  high-grade  intelligence, 
scientific  knov^^ledge  and  good  business  management. 

Citrus  orchard  territory. — Florida  and  California  are 
recognized  as  our  leading  citrus   fruit  states.     The  whole 


3M 


Fruit  farms  and  orchards,  Southwest. 


southern  tier  of  states  is  developing  the  industry  success- 
fully, however,  and  some  of  them  bid  fair  to  rival  the  two 
mother  states.  There  are  to  be  found  large  and  profitable 
orchards  of  oranges,  grapefruit,  limes  and  lemons  in  the 
southern  portions  of  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Texas,  Louis- 
iana, Alabama  and  Georgia. 

The  orange. — The  orange  came  originally  from  Asia, 
but  now  it  is  a  native  of  nearly  every  country  where  a 
tropical  or  subtropical   climate  prevails.     It  is  highly  de- 


CULTURE  OF  FRUITS  AND  NUTS  227 


Almond  orchard,  southern  and  western  territory. 


Riverside  orange  groves  of  California. 


228 


AGRICULTURE 


veloped  in  Porto  Rico,  Hawaii,  the  Philippine  Islands, 
South  America,  China,  Japan,  Spain,  Portugal,  Sicily  and 
Asia  Minor.  The  fruit  is  shipped  from  these  countries 
in  great  boatloads  to  the  markets  of  the  world. 

When  Columbus  and  his  men  landed  in  America  they 


Oregon  raisin  vineyard. 


found  two  kinds  of  citrus  fruit  growing  in  Florida,  the 
rough  lemon  of  the  Everglades  and  the  sour  orange  of 
the  hummock  lands  farther  north.  When  the  Spaniards 
came  a  little  later  they  planted  the  seeds  of  their  cultivated 
oranges.  From  these  seeds  there  developed  the  great  seed- 
ling orange  groves  of  the   South.     At  the  present  time, 


CULTURE  OF  FRUITS  AND  NUTS  229 

however,  there  have  been  developed  many  budded  and 
grafted  varieties,  and  the  orange  commonly  known  as  the 
navel  orange.  In  Florida  alone  there  are  hundreds  of 
varieties.  There  is  still  shipped  out  to  the  northern  markets 
a  great  deal  of  the  seedling  stock,  but  more  and  more  the 
navel  orange  is  coming  to  claim  the  best  markets.  The 
Parson  Brown  is  a  very  early  variety,  sweet  and  whole- 
some. The  Pineapple  is  somewhat  later  and  is  considered 
by  many  the  most  delicious  of  southern  varieties.  The  Flor- 
ida Valencia  is  a  late  variety  resembling  the  California  Val- 
encia. A  considerable  difference  in  flavor  and  texture  exists 
between  Florida  oranges  and  those  grown  in  the  South- 
west owing  to  the  fact  that  the  former  are  usually  grown 
under  humid  conditions  and  the  latter  by  irrigation. 

The  lemon. — The  lemon  tree  grows  very  much  the 
same  as  the  orange  except  that  it  is  smaller  and  has  a 
lighter  colored  leaf.  The  flowers  are  tinged  with  red  and 
the  fruit  is  of  a  paler  yellow  with  a  more  sour  and  acid 
flavor.  While  the  oranges  are  used  largely  for  breakfast 
fruit  dishes,  desserts  and  general  eating  purposes,  the  lemon 
is  used  for  sirups,  beverages,  flavoring  extracts,  etc. 

The  grapefruit. — The  grapefruit  tree  is  also  in  many 
respects  like  the  orange.  The  fruit  is  larger  and  of  a  very 
pale  yellow  color.  The  flesh  is  of  a  lighter  texture  than 
the  orange,  is  sour  and  sometimes  bitter.  It  is  used  ex- 
tensively throughout  the  United  States,  and  in  fact  much 
of  the  rest  of  the  world  as  a  very  palatable  breakfast  fruit. 
It  will  grow  in  practically  all  sections  where  the  orange 
can  be  produced.  The  grapefruit  is  a  native  of  the  Ma- 
layan and  Polynesian  islands.  It  is  a  more  hardy  plant 
than  the  orange,  and  will  adapt  itself  more  readily  to  the 
local  conditions.  The  grapefruit  industry  is  at  present 
developing  very  rapidly  in  Florida,  California  and  several  of 
the  gulf  states. 


230  AGRICULTURE 

The  lime. — The  lime  resembles  the  lemon  tree  in  ap- 
pearance, excepting  that  it  is  smaller.  It  is  cultivated  ex- 
tensively in  the  West  Indies,  Florida,  southern  Mississippi, 
part  of  Alabama  and  to  some  extent  in  other  gulf  states. 
The  tree  is  more  thorny  than  other  citrus  trees.  It  bears 
white  flowers,  and  the  fruit  resembles  the  lemon,  but  is 
smaller  in  size.  It  has  a  large  amount  of  acid  in  its  makeup, 
and  is  used  extensively  for  beverages  and  sirups. 

Soil  and  climate  requirements. — Citrus  fruits  require 
a  deep,  fertile  and  well-drained  loam  soil.  The  soil  needs 
lime,  and  should  be  kept  rich  in  humus  and  nitrogen.  All 
citrus  fruits  demand  a  warm,  subtropical  climate,  a  great 
deal  of  sunshine  and  freedom  from  cold  winds,  frost  and 
cold  nights.  One  of  the  greatest  dangers  to  the  citrus 
fruit  industry  of  the  United  States  is  from  frosts  and  the 
uncertainty  of  orchard  localities  in  the  matter  of  early  and 
late  freezing.  The  killing  of  fruit  buds  by  late  spring 
frosts  must  be  met  by  some  of  the  special  methods,  such  as 
whitewashing,  smudging  and  heating  by  means  of  oil  pots. 
The  last  named  method  is  probably  the  most  efficient. 

Cultivation  and  management. — No  type  of  farming 
requires  greater  care  in  the  matter  of  management  and 
cultural  methods.  The  orchard  bed  should  be  prepared  by 
deep  plowing  and  a  thorough  pulverization  of  the  top  soil. 
The  soil  should  be  kept  free  from  weeds  and  a  constant  dust 
mulch  maintained  throughout  the  season  for  the  conserva- 
tion of  the  moisture.  From  the  fact  that  an  orchard  will 
remain  bearing  for  years  there  is  great  danger  of  depleting 
the  soil  of  its  fertility  and  making  the  orchard  unpro- 
ductive, hence  the  necessity  of  cover  crops,  the  plowing 
under  of  legumes,  the  adding  of  barnyard  manure,  lime, 
potash,  and  other  fertilizing  material  from  time  to  time  as 
they  are  needed.  In  matters  of  tillage  and  cultivation  the 
citrus  orchard  should  be  as  carefully  managed  as  a  corn 


CULTURE  OF  FRUITS  AND  NUTS 


231 


232  AGRICULTURE 

field  or  a  vegetable  garden.  The  irrigated  orchards  of  the 
Southwest  require  a  little  different  type  of  management 
owing  to  the  peculiar  conditions  under  which  the  land  is 
handled.  Most  of  the  irrigation  of  citrus  orchards  is  done 
by  surface  irrigation,  bringing  the  water  from  its  source 
to  the  head  of  the  orchard  by  means  of  lateral  ditches  and 
then  distributing  by  sublaterals,  furrows  or  corrugations. 
The  water  is  conveyed  from  this  head  ditch  down  through 
the  orchard  and  is  absorbed  by  the  root  system  by  means 
of  radiation. 

Annual  pruning,  thinning  and  spraying  of  the  orchards 
is  of  greatest  importance  in  the  management  of  citrus  fruits. 
The  neglect  of  these  usually  means  not  only  a  defeat  for 
the  following  year,  but  an  enormous  loss  for  a  number  of 
succeeding  years. 

Picking  and  packing. — Great  care  and  skill  are  re- 
quired in  the  picking  and  packing  of  all  citrus  fruit.  In 
the  best  commercial  orchards  we  find  great  packing  plants 
erected  at  considerable  expense  where  the  fruit  is  not  only 
sorted  and  carefully  crated,  but  washed  and  polished  and 
then  wrapped  and  placed  in  neat  packages  or  in  boxes 
ready  for  the  market.  Those  who  would  make  a  success 
of  citrus  fruit  production  need  to  give  a  great  deal  of  time 
and  attention  to  this  particular  phase  of  the  work. 

Marketing. — Most  of  the  citrus  fruit  at  the  present 
time  is  marketed  through  various  associations.  The  indi- 
vidual grower  is  at  a  disadvantage  when  it  comes  to  mar- 
keting his  products,  first,  because  he  does  not  have  enough 
in  quantity  to  command  the  attention  of  leading  buyers ; 
second,  because  he  can  not  secure  the  same  transportation 
rates  given  to  larger  concerns ;  third,  because  he  does  not 
have  time  to  study  the  markets  and  so  exercise  the  best  busi- 
ness judgment  in  a  matter  so  essential  to  a  profitable  return 
from  his  fruit.    The  importance  of  the  marketing  end  of  this 


CULTURE  OF  FRUITS  AND  NUTS    '      233 

business  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  some  of  the  largest  grow- 
ers are  investing  thousands  of  dollars  in  packing  and  mar- 
keting facilities  where  in  former  years  the  packing  was 
done  in  the  orchards  and  marketing  attended  to  only  in  a 
sort  of  haphazard  way.  Some  of  the  packing  plants  in 
California  and  Florida  cost  upward  of  $10,000. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  What  per  cent,  of  the  land  in  your  state  is  devoted 
to  citrus  fruit?  Give  the  approximate  acreage  of  oranges, 
lemons,  limes,  grapefruit.  In  your  judgment,  what  per 
cent,  of  the  other  available  unused  land  could  be  profit- 
ably used  for  citrus  fruit  purposes  ? 

2.  What  varieties  of  oranges  are  produced  in  your 
section?  What  varieties  are  considered  the  most  profitable 
and  the  most  desirable  for  table  use? 

3.  Where  do  your  local  stores  secure  their  stock  of 
citrus  fruit?  Make  inquiry  and  find  out,  if  possible,  the 
distance  between  the  orchards  where  these  are  produced 
and  your  local  market.  Find  out  how  much  it  costs  to 
transport  this  fruit  per  box  to  your  market. 

4.  What  is  the  food  value  of  the  oranges  and  grape- 
fruit? Why  do  doctors  often  advise  that  small  children, 
invalids,  and  sick  people  take  a  great  deal  of  orange  juice? 

5.  What  are  the  reasons  for  changing  from  the  native 
sour  and  sweet  oranges  of  Florida  to  the  production  of  the 
navel  orange?  If  you  wished  to  order  budded  and  grafted 
stock,  of  whom  would  you  buy?    Where  would  you  go? 

6.  What  is  the  difference  between  budding  and  graft- 
ing of  trees? 

7 .  Secure  at  the  local  market  a  navel  orange,  the  sweet 
Florida  orange  and  several  other  distinct  varieties.  Try 
to  discover  the  difference  in  flavor,  color,  texture.  What 
particular  qualities  does  the  citrus  fruit  market  demand  in 
its  fruit  ?  How  may  we  secure  these  qualities  from  our 
orchards  ? 

8.  By  the  use  of  a  score  card  judge  ten  oranges,  ten 
lemons,  and  ten  grapefruit. 


234 


AGRICULTURE 


A  typical  Arizona  orange  tree. 


CULTURE  OF  FRUITS  AND  NUTS  235 

3.     Other  Important  Fruits  of  the  South  and  West 

The  pineapple. — This  is  one  of  the  desirable  and 
promising  fruits  of  southern  Florida,  southern  California 
and  southern  Texas.  The  range  of  its  territory  will  un- 
doubtedly be  considerably  expanded  within  the  next  few 
years.  Much  of  the  region  in  the  southern  sections  of  the 
gulf  states,  as  well  as  southern  New  Mexico  and  Arizona, 
especially  when  the  land  in  the  latter  states  has  been  re- 
claimed and  water  made  available,  will  permit  the  growing 
of  this  fruit.  The  pineapple  is  widely  used  for  sauces,  sal- 
ads and  other  desserts,  as  well  as  for  flavormg  extracts, 
marmalades,  etc. 

The  olive. — The  olive  is  one  of  the  oldest  fruits 
known  to  the  world.  It  is  fast  becoming  a  profitable  fruit 
industry  in  our  southern  states,  especially  in  southern  Cali- 
fornia. The  olive  tree  is  of  a  low  branching,  evergreen 
variety  from  15  to  35  feet  high.  It  has  small  dark  green 
leaves,  and  a  dark  green  fruit  which  turns  a  brownish  black 
when  ripe.  It  is  native  to  Africa,  Asia  and  Greece.  The 
commercial  orchardists  are  growing  the  olive  in  Italy^ 
France,  Spain,  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Mexico,  Peru,  Algeria, 
Tunis,  and  in  the  United  States  some  very  large  commer- 
cial orchards  are  found  in  southern  California.  The  trees 
will  begin  to  bear  when  from  six  to  eight  years  old.  A 
good  tree  of  this  age  will  produce  from  five  to  eight  gallons 
of  oil,  and  the  yield  increases  gradually  up  to  as  high  as  fifty 
gallons.  An  olive  tree  will  bear  profitably  from  forty  to 
fifty  years,  but  the  tree  itself  will  continue  to  live  and  ap- 
pear hardy  and  strong   for  upward  of  a  hundred  years. 

Figs. — The  fig  is  a  very  valuable  and  profitable  fruit. 
It  grows  well  in  Florida,  southern  Alabama,  Mississippi, 
Louisiana,  Texas,  Arizona,  southern  Utah  and  southern 
California.     The  tree   is   propagated   from  cuttings  taken 


236 


AGRICULTURE 


from  roots  in  the  fall  of  the  year  or  in  early  spring-.  The 
fig  tree  produces  every  year,  and  at  the  age  of  two  or 
three  years  will  bear  a  considerable  crop. 

Peaches   and   pears. — Peaches   and   pears   are   grown 
extensively  in  practically  the  entire  southern  half  of  the 


Four-year-old  pear  tree,  Idaho.    Orchard  club  members  gather- 
ing fruit. 


United  States.  The  fruit  is  very  desirable  not  only  for 
dessert  purposes,  but  for  canning.  The  peach  and  pear 
industry  has  greatly  developed  in  recent  years  under  more 
scientific  management,  the  adaptation  of  varieties  to  cli- 
mate  and   other   local   conditions,   increased    facilities    for 


CULTURE  OF  FRUITS  AND  NUTS  237 

transportation,  cold  storage,  etc.,  have  given  great  en- 
couragement to  this  fruit  industry.  Peaches  especially  will 
not  stand  much  handling,  and  are  too  perishable  a  product 
to  ship  a  great  distance  from  grower  to  consumer.  Success 
in  the  handling  of  these  orchards  depends  very  largely  upon 
the  amount  of  business  management  and  intelligence  ex- 
ercised. 

4.     Nut  Farming  of  the  South  and  West 

The  largest  commercial  nut  orchards  of  the  United 
States  are  found  in  the  southern  and  southwestern  states. 
This  industry  has  greatly  developed  during  the  last  fifteen 
years,  and  as  the  cultural  methods  become  better  under- 
stood the  area  will  be  greatly  increased.  Nuts  constitute 
a  very  important  part  of  our  daily  diet.  They  furnish  a 
very  excellent  substitute  for  meats,  which  are  increasing 
so  rapidly  in  cost  to  the  consumer.  Most  of  the  nut  trees 
grown  in  this  country  are  considered  very  excellent  trees 
for  the  farmer's  wood  lot,  and  for  ornamental  or  shade  pur- 
poses in  our  village  and  city  lots.  Some  of  the  leading  com- 
mercial varieties  are  the  almond,  English  walnut,  pecan  and 
filbert. 

The  almond. — The  almond  tree  very  much  resembles 
the  peach  tree  in  size,  foliage  and  flower.  The  almond  is 
a  very  valuable  nut  because  of  the  high  percentage  of 
food  to  shell.  When  the  fruit  ripens  the  pecan  breaks  open, 
the  pulp  dries,  and  the  nut  falls  to  the  ground.  It  is  then 
gathered  and  prepared  for  the  market.  The  largest  almond 
groves  are  found  in  the  southern  half  of  the  states  of  Flor- 
ida, Texas  and  California.  Almonds  were  brought  to  this 
country  from  Spain  and  countries  adjoining  the  Mediter- 
ranean sea.  They  are  used  very  extensively  for  confec- 
tions, cooking  purposes,  medicine,  flavoring  extracts,  and 
sometimes  for  perfumery. 


238  AGRICULTURE 

The  English  walnut. — The  English  walnut  is  one  of 
the  largest  and  finest  nut  trees  of  the  South  and  Southwest. 
It  will  bear  profitably  at  the  age  of  six  years  and  will  con- 
tinue to  bear  for  thirty  years.  The  walnut  industry  has 
not  developed  in  this  country  nearly  so  far  as  is  possible. 
It  is  conceded  by  the  authorities  that  this  nut  will  grow 
profitably  in  eight  or  ten  states,  yet  at  the  present  time  it 
is  confined  largely  to  the  southern  half  of  California  and 
southern  Texas.  It  is  found  growing  fairly  well  in  states 
as  far  north  as  Illinois,  Indiana,  Delaware,  Virginia,  Mary- 
land, Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey. 

The  pecan. — One  of  the  most  profitable  nut  indus- 
tries of  America  is  that  of  the  pecan.  The  tree  grows 
wild  in  a  number  of  our  states  and  is  cultivated  in  prac- 
tically all  of  the  southern  region,  and  particularly  by  some  of 
the  largest  commercial  orchardists  in  southern  California, 
Texas,  Louisiana,  southern  Mississippi  and  Georgia.  The 
pecan  industry  has  only  fairly  begun,  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  area  and  output  will  be  greatly  increased.  The 
trees  are  produced  in  practically  the  same  way  as  the  citrus 
fruit  trees,  by  budding  and  grafting.  They  are  set  about 
forty  feet  apart  and  will  begin  to  bear  at  from  five  to  eight 
years  of  age,  and  continue  to  bear  from  twenty-five  to 
forty  years.  There  are  a  large  number  of  varieties  of  pe- 
cans. The  best  commercial  variety  is  the  one  known  as 
the  Louisiana  and  Texas  paper  shell.  The  tree  is  valued 
not  only  for  its  food  qualities,  but  as  an  ornamental  and 
shade  tree. 

Other  varieties  of  nuts. — The  United  States  was  at 
one  time  well  covered  with  nut  trees  in  the  forests  from 
the'  east  to  the  west  and  as  far  north  as  the  Canadian  line. 
The  deforestation  which  is  constantly  going  on  has,  how- 
ever, greatly  reduced  the  number  of  wild  nut  trees.  The 
black  walnut,  butternut,  hickory  nut,  chinquapin,  chestnut. 


CULTURE  OF  FRUITS  AND  NUTS  239 

and  hazelnut  are  all  fast  becoming  extinct  as  wild  nuts, 
and  sooner  or  later,  in  order  to  conserve  these  varieties, 
it  v^rill  be  necessary  to  produce  them  as  domestic  trees. 
Every  farmer  should  be  especially  interested  in  including 
the  nut  trees  in  his  work  of  reforestation  or  the  develop- 
ment of  his  wood  lot.  In  setting  out  shade  trees  in  the 
cities  on  vacant  lots,  dooryards  and  back  yards  a  careful 
selection  of  nut  trees  will  be  well  worth  while. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Make  a  census  (1)  of  all  the  different  kinds  of  nut 
trees  on  your  home  farm,  (2)  of  all  to  be  found  in  your 
locality. 

2.  Join  with  the  class  in  making  a  collection  of  all  the 
different  kinds  of  nuts  available  from  the  forests  and  in  the 
markets  near  at  hand.  Learn  to  identify  each.  Find  out 
where  each  kind  was  produced. 

3.  Consider  what  nut  trees  not  grown  in  your  lo- 
cality could  be  profitably  introduced.  Consider  also  the 
question  of  shade  and  ornamentation. 

4.  Make  a  study  of  a  table  of  food  values  of  nuts. 
Look  up  the  food  value  of  other  articles  of  food  and  make 
a  comparison. 

5.  On  a  map  of  the  United  States  locate  the  areas 
where  the  principal  nuts  are  grown. 

5.     Demonstrations 

1.  Demonstrate  how  to  grade  and  pack  a  box  of  or- 
anges or  apples. 

2.  Show  how  to  polish  and  dry  different  kinds  of  fruit 
before  packing. 

3.  Demonstrate  how  to  can  windfall  apples  in  two  dif- 
ferent ways.  Girls  may  show  how  to  prepare  dishes  from 
canned  products  for  table  use. 

4.  Demonstrate  the  wrong,  then  the  right  way  to  core 
and  pare  apples. 

17 


240  AGRICULTURE 

5.  Demonstrate  how  to  mix  and  use  the  different  or- 
chard sprays.     See  Chapter  XIX  for  directions. 

6.  Demonstrate  how  to  make  a  fruit  tree  graft.  How 
to  bud  an  orange  tree. 

7.  Demonstrate  how  to  prepare  oranges,  lemons,  figs 
and  apples  for  the  county  or  state  fair  exhibit. 

8.  Show  how  properly  to  prepare  grapefruit  for  table 
use  as  a  breakfast  dish. 

9.  Demonstrate  how  to  irrigate  a  bearing  orchard. 

10.  Demonstrate  how  properly  to  hull  and  crack  the 
various  nuts  mentioned  in  this  chapter. 

6.     Play  Contests  with  Fruit  and  Nuts 

1.  Fruit  paring  contest,  based  upon  time,  skill  and 
weight  of  peelings  and  finished  products. 

2.  Variety  naming  contest  in  both  fruit  and  nut  classes. 

3.  Nut  cracking  contest. 

4.  Contest  in  judging  of  apples,  oranges  and  pecans. 

5.  Guessing  games  with  both  fruit  and  nuts  in  matters 
of  naming  varieties  after  descriptions  are  given.  Second, 
by  guessing  the  number  of  any  given  variety  or  kind  of 
fruit  or  nuts  a  certain  vessel  will  hold. 

6.  Apple  canning  contest ;  use  windfall  apples. 

7.  Canning  contests.  To  see  who  can  prepare  and  can 
the  largest  quantity  of  any  kind  of  fruit  in  a  given  time. 

8.  Manual  training  contests  in  making  canning  outfits, 
fruit  presses,  smudging  vessels,  crates,  etc. 

9.  Tree  pruning  contests. 

10.  Geography,  language  and  arithmetic  contests,  based 
upon  fruit  and  nut  interests. 

7.     Club  Projects 

In  connection  with  the  fruit  and  nut  industry  it  is 
highly   desirable   to   organize   orchard   management   clubs. 


CULTURE  OF  FRUITS  AND  NUTS  241 

This  will  encourage  the  application  of  the  information  of 
this  book  in  real  practise.  Club  members  in  addition 
to  meeting  once  a  month  should  agree  to  do  the  work  in 
pruning,  spraying,  trimming,  cultivation,  managing,  inter- 
cropping, picking,  grading,  crating,  marketing,  and  then,  by 
means  of  canning,  save  all  windfall  fruits  and  packing 
house  culls.     The  basis  of  award  may  be  as  follows: 

1.  Management  of  orchard 20 

2.  Condition  of  the  orchard  at  close  of  season 20 

3.  Net  profit  on   investment 20 

4.  Exhibit  and  quality  of  both  fresh  and  canned  products  20 

5.  Crop  report  and  story  of  season's  work 20 

Total  score 100 

The  above  score  can  be  modified  to  suit  club  projects 
with  strawberries,  peaches,  pears  and  citrus  fruits. 

The  fall  fruit  and  vegetable  festival  held  in  connection 
with  the  school  for  the  entire  community  should  be  one 
of  the  most  interesting  events  of  the  year.  At  this  time  the 
demonstrations,  exhibits  and  play  contests  can  be  success- 
fully carried  out  with  definite  educational  and  recreative 
value  to  all. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
THE  TOMATO 

TOMATOES  are  becoming  so  important  a  garden  and 
truck  crop  as  to  deserve  a  special  chapter.  They  came 
originally  from  tropical  regions,  where  the  vines  bear  fruit 
all  the  year. 

1.    Importance  of  the  Tomato 

For  a  long  time  tomatoes  were  not  known  to  have  value 
as  a  food,  but  were  thought  to  be  poison.  The  plants  were 
then  cultivated  for  ornamental  purposes  and  were  known 
as  "love  apples." 

Uses  now  as  food. — The  chief  value  of  tomatoes  as  a 
food  lies  in  the  sugars  and  protein,  and  in  a  stimulating 
effect  on  digestion.  More  than  three  hundred  recipes  have 
been  worked  out  in  preparing  tomatoes  for  our  tables.  Many 
more  people  will  use  tomatoes  as  a  part  of  their  diet  when 
they  come  to  know  more  of  their  value. 

Tomato  growing  states. — Tomatoes  will  grow  suc- 
cessfully in  almost  every  part  of  the  United  States.  Mary- 
land is  one  of  the  largest  tomato  producing  states,  and  has 
the  largest  number  of  tomato  canning  factories.  New 
Jersey,  Indiana,  California  and  Delaware  rank  next. 

Hundreds  of  thousands  of  cases  of  tomatoes  are  now 
being  grown  and  canned  annually  by  the  boys  and  girls  of 
the  canning  clubs.  It  is  estimated  that,  after  paying  the  ex- 
penses of  raising  his  crop,  a  club  member  from  ten  to  eigh- 
teen years  of  age  can  make  from  ten  to  twenty-five  dollars 
a  day  for  the  time  he  puts  in  canning  the  crop  for  market. 

242* 


THE  TOMATO  243 

2.     Varieties 

In  selecting  the  varieties  for  the  home  garden  the  length 
of  season,  quality,  yield  and  appearance  of  the  crop  should 
be  considered. 

Early  varieties. — There  are  a  great  many  varieties 
from  which  to  select.  Among  the  favorites  are :  Earliana, 
Chalk's  Early  Jewell^  Bonnie  Best,  Globe  and  Prince's 
June  Pink. 

Late  varieties. — The  chief  late  varieties  are:  Stone, 
Matchless,  Beauty,  Ponderosa,  Dwarf  Stone,  Acme  and 
Trophy. 

3.    Raising  the  Crop 

Where  the  seasons  are  short  it  is  necessary  to  start  the 
plants  in  a  hotbed  and  transplant  them  when  all  danger  of 
frost  in  past.  In  the  northern  states  it  is  well  to  use  the 
cold-frame  for  hardening  off  the  plants  before  setting  in 
the  garden.  This  process  strengthens  the  plants  and  ena- 
bles the  crop  to  mature  before  freezing  in  the  fall. 

Transplanting. — Have  the  seed  bed  well  prepared  by 
deep  spading  or  plowing,  thoroughly  manured  with  a  well- 
rotted  barnyard  manure,  and  well  pulverized.  The  plat 
should  be  marked  off  in  rows  three  or  four  feet  apart,  accord- 
ing to  the  variety  of  tomatoes  grown.  The  large  hardy  vari- 
eties will  require  a  distance  of  four  feet  each  way,  while 
the  dwarf  varieties  will  do  well  three  feet  apart.  In  trans- 
planting, have  the  holes  opened  up,  remove  the  plants  from 
cold-frames  or  hotbed  without  injuring  the  roots.  Allow 
enough  soil  to  accompany  the  roots  so  that  the  plant  may 
go  on  growing  without  pause. 

Pruning. — Much  of  the  success  of  the  tomato  crop 
depends  on  proper  pruning  and  staking.  Tomatoes  are 
especially  liable  to  fungous  and  bacterial  diseases,  and  there- 
fore need  to  be  kept  from  the  ground  and  given  an  abun- 


244 


AGRICULTURE 


A  plot  of  tomatoes  in  Geauga  County,  Ohio,  showing  the  result 
of  careful  pruning  and  staking. 


THE  TOMATO  245 

dance  of  sunlight.  The  vines  should  be  pruned  at  the  time 
of  transplanting  or  soon  afterwards  by  pinching  off  the 
suckers,  or  secondary  leaf  buds,  found  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves.  This  will  cause  the  plant  to  grow  tall  instead  of 
spreading  out.  After  each  vine  has  developed  four  or  five 
clusters  of  fruit  the  top  bud  should  be  pinched  off  to  prevent 
the  plant  from  growing  too  high. 

Staking. — The  method  of  pruning  described  requires 
staking  to  support  the  vines.  For  this  purpose  a  singly 
stake  may  be  driven  beside  each  hill,  or  a  continuous  meshed 
wire  or  other  form  of  fence  may  be  used.  Soft  twine  or 
cloth  should  be  used  for  tying*  the  vines.  No  loop  should 
be  drawn  tightly  around  the  plant. 

Spraying. — ^The  tomato  vines  should  be  thoroughly 
sprayed  with  Bordeaux  mixture  several  times  during  the 
season.  The  first  spray  should  be  given  about  the  time  the 
first  fruit  begins  to  form,  or  even  earlier  if  the  season  is 
warm  and  moist.  This  will  prevent  the  plants  from  being 
attacked  by  mildew.  Remove  at  once  any  tomatoes  that 
show  a  brownish  discolored  area  about  the  blossom  end. 
This  will  prevent  the  spread  of  disease. 

4.     Harvesting  and  Marketing 

Gathering  the  crop. — ^Tomatoes  should  be  gathered 
when  ripe  and  firm  and  should  be  handled  with  great  care 
to  prevent  crushing  or  bruising.  For  marketing  they  should 
be  graded  in  three  classes,  prime,  medium  and  culls.  The 
more  nearly  uniform  in  size,  shape  and  color,  the  more  will 
the  market  offer  for  the  product. 

Canning. — Tomatoes  for  canning  purposes  should  be 
thoroughly  ripened  and  be  of  a  deep  red  color,  smooth 
and  firm.  They  should  be  canned  whole  so  as  to  permit 
the  use  of  the  tomato  in  as  many  different  ways  as  is  pos- 


246  AGRICULTURE 

sible  with  the  fresh  tomato.  Water  should  not  be  added 
to  jars  or  cans  when  canning  tomatoes,  as  this  will  dilute 
their  flavor,  destroy  their  color,  and  injure  their  purity. 
The  culls  may  be  put  up  for  such  purposes  as  puree,  for 
tomato  soup  and  breaded  tomatoes. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Write  a  brief  history  of  the  tomato.  Name  the 
different  uses  to  which  the  tomato  is  put  in  your  own  home. 
Can  you  suggest  still  other  uses?  Why  should  tomatoes 
be  canned  whole? 

2.  How  many  quarts  of  tomatoes  did  you  raise  and 
can  last  year?  What  kind  of  soil  is  best  adapted  to  the 
culture  of  tomatoes? 

3.  Make  a  drawing  of  a  hotbed,  giving  all  dimensions. 
Write  out  full  directions  for  preparing,  filling  and  caring 
for  the  bed. 

4.  Show  how  to  keep  a  bookkeeping  account  6i  one- 
tenth  acre  of  tomatoes,  covering  items  of  cost  and  cash 
received  from  the  time  of  preparing  the  hotbed  to  and 
including  the  canning  and  marketing  of  the  crop. 

5.  Show  on  the  map  of  the  United  States  the  greatest 
tomato  states,  and  the  approximate  location  of  the  terri- 
tory in  which  the  early  varieties  should  be  grown  and  the 
territory  in  which  the  late  varieties  should  be  grown. 

5.     Demonstrations  with   the   Tomato 

1.  Demonstrate  how  to  scald,  pare  and  core  the  to- 
mato. 

2.  How  to  can  tomatoes. 

3.  How  to  grade  and  crate  for  parcel-post  shipment, 
prime  grade  tomatoes. 

4.  Demonstrate  how  to  use  the  tomato  in  the  home  by 
preparing  certain  dishes. 

5.  Demonstrate  the  proper  method  of  pruning  and 
staking  tomato  vines. 

6.  Other  demonstrations  of  cultivation,  hoeing,  spray- 


THE  TOMATO 


247 


Waterloo,  Iowa,  club  girl  demonstrating  how  to  prune  the  to- 
mato plant  by  pinching  off  the  axillary  bud. 


248  AGRICULTURE 

ing,  thinning,  etc.,  can  be  undertaken  in  connection  with 
tomato  culture. 

6.     Tomato  Play  Contests 

1.  Tomato  race,  conducted  on  very  much  the  same  plan 
as  the  potato  race. 

2.  Tomato  judging  contest.^ 

3.  Tomato  canning  contest. 

4.  Can  labeling  contest. 

5.  Essay  writing  contest  on  the  origin  and  history  of 
the  tomato. 

6.  Tomato  problems  contest. 

7.  Tomato  recipe  giving  contest. 

7.     Tomato  Club  Project 

Another  of  the  interesting  club  projects  is  the  grow- 
ing of  a  club  plat  of  tomatoes  and  studying  all  of  the  inter- 
esting lessons  from  the  selection  of  the  variety  of  seed, 
through  the  hotbed,  cold-frame,  transplanting,  pruning, 
staking,  cultivating,  gathering,  grading,  crating,  marketing 
and  home  canning  of  the  surplus  products.  To  this  can  be 
added  sewing  of  apron  and  cap,  and  finally  the  preparing 
of  the  product  into  various  dishes  for  the  table.  For  the 
rural  communities  one-tenth  of  an  acre  should  be  the  acre- 
age basis,  and  for  city  and  village  work,  not  less  than  a 
square  rod. 

The  basis  of  award  should  be : 

1.  Yield,    total   pounds    of   tomatoes 20 

2.  Net  profit  on  investment 20 

3.  Quality,   both   fresh   and   canned   products 20 

4  Variety    of    canned    and    prepared    tomato    products    on 

exhibit 20 

5.     Cost  record  and  story  "How  I   Made,  Canned  and  Mar- 
keted   My    Crop" 20- 

Total    score 100 


CHAPTER  XIX 
GARDEN   AND    ORCHARD    SPRAYS 

POISONOUS  sprays  for  the  destruction  of  insect  and 
fungi  of  garden  and  orchards  have  come  into  general 
use.  Upon  their  successful  application  often  depends  the 
value  of  the  crop,  both  as  to  quantity  and  quality.  Not  in- 
frequently an  entire  failure  of  yield  results  from  the  attack 
of  these  pests  v^hen  they  are  not  destroyed  in  time.  Wormy 
and  scabby  apples,  rotting  peaches  and  plums,  blighted  ber- 
ries and  diseased  vegetables  prove  the  necessity  for  some 
means  of  stopping  their  ravages. 

The  purpose  of  the  two  classes  of  mixtures,  fungicides 
and  insecticides,  is  indicated  by  the  name  applied ;  the  cide 
in  each  word  means  to  kill.  Only  the  more  important  and 
common  fungicides  and  insecticides  will  be  described  here. 

1.    Bordeaux  Mixture 

Bordeaux  mixture  is  one  of  the  most  successful  and 
widely  used  fungicides.  Used  at  proper  strength  it  is  harm- 
less to  most  plants,  though  it  has  been  found  injurious  to 
some,  especially  plums  and,  in  less  degree,  peaches.  It  will 
also  stain  foliage  and  fruit  upon  which  it  falls. " 

Composition. — Bordeaux  mixture  is  made  when 
needed,  of  copper  sidphate  (blue  vitriol)  and  lime.  The 
strength  may  be  varied,  depending  on  the  required  use.  The 
proportions  most  generally  accepted  are : 

4  pounds  of  copper  sulphate. 
6  pounds  of  fresh  lime. 
50  gallons  of  water. 

249 


250  AGRICULTURE 

The  copper  sulphate  is  the  active  agent  in  kilHng  the 
fungi,  while  the  lime  prevents  injury  to  the  plant.  Besides 
this  "4-6-50"  mixture,  other  formulas  frequently  used  are 
of  the  proportions  4-4-50,  and  5-5-50. 

Making  the  mixture. — When  but  a  small  amount  of 
spraying  is  to  be  done  the  only  equipment  required  for 
making  Bordeaux  mixture  is  a  fifty-gallon  barrel,  tv^o  twen- 
ty-five gallon  tubs,  buckets  and  a  fine-mesh  sieve. 

Fill  one  of  the  smaller  tubs  with  water,  and  suspend 
just  below  the  surface  four  poujids  of  copper  sulphate  in  a 
loose  bag,  giving  it  time  to  dissolve.  This  will  require 
about  an  hour,  though  the  process  can  be  hastened  by  using 
hot  water.  Slake  six  pounds  of  lime  in  the  other  tub,  us- 
ing hot  water  and  reducing  the  lime  to  a  paste.  When  the 
lime  has  cooled,  dilute  to  twenty-five  gallons. 

Now  stir  the  contents  of  the  tubs,  and  pour  bucketfuls 
of  each  mixture  simultaneously  through  a  sieve  into  the 
larger  barrel,  making  sure  that  the  streams  mix.  Stir  well, 
and  the  compound  is  ready  for  the  spraying  machine. 

Use. — The  amount  needed  for  a  garden  can  be  judged 
from  the  fact  that  a  tree  in  full  leaf  and  having  a  spread 
of  twenty-five  feet  will  require  about  four  gallons  of  the 
mixture.  Most  beginners  use  too  little,  hence  fail  to 
get  the  best  results. 

Bordeaux  mixture  is  not  effective  against  insects.  If, 
however,  arsenate  of  lead  in  the  proportion  of  two  pounds  to 
each  barrel  of  the  mixture  be  combined  with  it,  the  com- 
pound will  serve  as  a  check  on  both  insects  and  fungous 
diseases.  Scab,  apple  blotch,  bitter  rot,  wilt,  mildew  and 
brown  rot  are  controlled  by  Bordeaux  mixture. 

2.    Lime-Sulphtir  Mixture 
The  lime-sulphur  mixture,  besides  being  an  insecticide 
for  certain  plant  insects,  is  also  a  fungicide  serving  the  same 


GARDEN  AND  ORCHARD  SPRAYS  251 


Duchess  apples,  showing  results  of  punctures  of  the  plum  cur- 
cullo.    This  injury  could  have  been  saved  by  proper  spraying. 


Spraying  apple  trees. 


252  ,     AGRICULTURE 

general  purpose  as  Bordeaux  mixture.  It  has  the  advantage 
of  not  injuring  certain  plants,  such  as  peaches  and  plums, 
to  which  Bordeaux  mixture  is  not  adapted.  Some  fruit 
growers  are  coming  to  employ  it  as  their  principal  fungi- 
cide. 

Composition. — The  strength  of  the  mixture  may 
vary,  the  proportion  of  the  ingredients  commonly  being: 

8  pounds  of  flour  of  sulphur. 
8  pounds  of  fresh  lime. 
SO  gallons  of  water. 

Making  the  mixture. — The  lime-sulphur  compound 
may  be  made  by  several  different  processes,  one  of  the  sim- 
plest of  which  is  the  self-boiling  process.  To  make  the  self- 
boiled  mixture,  put  eight  pounds  of  lime  to  slake,  and  while 
the  slaking  process  is  going  on,  sift  over  the  lime  eight 
pounds  of  finely  powdered  sulphur.  Stir  constantly,  adding 
water  until  a  thin  paste  is  secured.  Dilute  to  fifty  gallons, 
and  strain  before  using. 

Lime-sulphur  may  be  also  bought  ready  for  use.  Al- 
though it  costs  slightly  more  than  the  home-made  product, 
the  time  saved  makes  the  commercial  form  cheaper  if  but 
a  small  amount  is  required. 

Use. — Lime-sulphur  controls  scale  insects  and  cur- 
culio,  as  well  as  such  fungous  diseases  as  scab,  leaf  curl, 
brown  rot,  etc.  Arsenate  of  lead  may  be  used  with  this 
mixture  also. 

3.    Arsenate  of  Lead 

Arsenate  of  lead  is  one  of  the  most  important  stomach 
insecticides  known,  and  has  largely  taken  the  place  of  Paris 
green  with  most  fruit  growers.  It  seems  to  be  palatable 
to  all  garden  insects.  It  adheres  well  to  foliage,  hence 
does  not  easily  wash  off  in  showers  as  does  Paris  green.  It 
will  not  injure  plants  no  matter  how  strong  the  solution. 


GARDEN  AND  ORCHARD  SPRAYS  253 

And  it  also  acts  as  a  fungicide,  especially  when  mixed  with 
lime-sulphur. 

Composition. — Arsenate  of  lead  is  easily  compounded, 
the  usual  formula  being: 

22  ounces   arsenate   of  lead   dissolved   in  2  gallons   of  warm 
water. 
8  ounces  arsenate   of   soda   dissolved   in   1   gallon  of  water. 
(Use  wooden  pail  in  each  case.) 

The  two  solutions  are  now  poured  together  and  diluted 
with  water  to  make  a  mixture  of  fifty  gallons,  then  it  is 
ready  to  spray. 

Arsenate  of  lead  may  also  be  procured  in  the  form  of 
a  paste  ready  to  dilute  for  the  spraying  machine.  Three 
pounds  of  the  commercial  paste  will  make  fifty  gallons  of 
spray.  It  will  hardly  pay  to  go  to  the  trouble  of  mixing  th^ 
compound  at  home,  since  the  ready-made  product  usually 
costs  no  more  than  the  ingredients  for  making  the  mixture. 

Use. — The  arsenate  of  lead  mixture  may  be  used 
either  alone  or  with  fungicides  for  destroying  nearly  the 
whole  range  of  biting  insects  attacking  garden  fruits.  It 
has  proved  of  the  greatest  service,  especially  in  the  spraying 
of  apples. 

4.     Paris  Green 

Paris  green  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  best  known  of  the 
insect  poisons.  Several  thousand  tons  are  used  each  year 
for  this  purpose. 

Composition. — Paris  green  is  often  prepared  for 
spraying  by  simply  dissolving  from  four  to  eight  ounces  in 
fifty  gallons  of  water.    The  standard  formula,  however,  is : 

4  ounces  of  Paris  green. 
Vz  pound  of  lime. 
50  gallons  of  water. 


254 


AGRICULTURE 


IWHF 


Crop  from  four  sprayed  peach  trees;  one  basket  of  scabby  fruit 
at  the  left;  the  remainder  sound. 


Crop  from  four  unsprayed  peach  trees.     Sound  fruit  in  three 
baskets  at  left;  the  remainder  scabby.    Why  spray? 


GARDEN  AND  ORCHARD  SPRAYS  255 

The  lime  is  to  be  slaked  and  mixed  with  the  water.  The 
Paris  green  is  mixed  to  the  form  of  paste  in  a  small  quan- 
tity of  water,  and  then  added  to  the  water. 

Use. — Paris  green  may  be  used  in  combination  with 
the  Bordeaux  mixture,  but  not  with  lime-sulphur.  When 
mixing  it  with  Bordeaux,  the  Paris  green  should  be  com- 
bined with  the  diluted  lime  before  it  is  brought  in  contact 
with  the  copper  sulphate. 

5.     Kerosene  Emulsion 

Kerosene  is  one  of  the  best  of  contact  insecticides.  A 
small  particle  of  it  on  any  part  of  the  body  means  certain 
death  to  any  insect.  Pure  kerosene,  however,  will  injure 
most  plants,  hence  must  be  used  in  a  mixture.  The  best 
of  these  is  what  is  known  as  kerosene  emulsion. 

Composition. — The  formula  for  the  mixture  commonly 
used  is : 

Vz  pound  hard  laundry  soap  shaved  fine. 

1  gallon  of  soft  water. 

2  gallons  of  kerosene. 

Making  the  emulsion. — One  of  the  advantages  in  the 
use  of  this  spray  is  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  made. 
Dissolve  the  soap  in  one  gallon  of  boiling  water;  remove 
from  the  stove  and  at  once  add  two  gallons  of  kerosene. 
Stir  while  cooling  until  a  soft,  butter-like  mass  is  obtained. 
Dilute  one  part  of  this  stock  solution  with  ten  or  twelve 
parts  of  water  as  needed  for  spraying. 

Use. — Kerosene  emulsion  may  be  used  on  all  kinds 
of  tender  foliage  without  injury.  It  will  control  the  vari- 
ous kinds  of  plant  lice,  slugs,  etc. 

6.     The  Resin-Lime  Mixture 
One  of  the  difficulties  in  using  many  of  the  insecticides 
and  fungicides  is  that  they  do  not  adhere  well  to  the  smooth 

18 


256  AGRICULTURE 

foliage  of  the  plants.     The  resin-lime  mixture  is  often  used 
in  combination  with  other  compounds  to  insure  their  stick- 
ing to  the  plants  until  they  have  done  their  work. 
Composition. — The  formula  employed  is : 

5  pounds  of  pulverized  resin. 

1  pound  of  concentrated  lye. 

1  pint  of  fish  or  some  other  animal  oil. 

5  gallons   of  water. 

This  mixture  is  the  stock  solution,  which  is  still  further 
diluted  as  used. 

Making  the  mixture. — The  oil,  resin  and  one  gallon 
of  cold  water  are  to  be  put  into  an  iron  kettle  and  heated 
until  the  resin  softens.  Add  the  lime  and  stir  well.  Then 
add  four  gallons  of  hot  water  and  boil  until  a  little  mixed 
with  cold  water  gives  a  clear  amber-colored  liquid.  Add 
water  to  make  up  for  what  has  boiled  away,  making  five 
gallons  of  the  compound. 

Use. — This  spray,  besides  causing  other  mixtures  to 
adhere  to  the  foliage  of  plants,  is  itself  an  excellent  contact 
insecticide.  Its  principal  efifect  is  through  making  a  smoth- 
ering coating  over  the  body  of  the  insect.  It  is  used  in 
some  regions  as  a  dormant  wash  for  the  control  of  scale 
insects.  When  used  with  Paris  green  or  Bordeaux,  two 
gallons  of  resin-lime  compound  are  mixed  with  eight  gal- 
lons of  water,  and  this  added  to  forty  gallons  of  the  spray. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Copper  sulphate  costs  from  seven  to  ten  cents  a 
pound,  and  lime,  when  bought  in  small  quantities,  about 
fifteen  cents  a  pound.  What,  then,  should  be  the  outlay  in 
making  fifty  gallons  of  Bordeaux  mixture  ?  What  would  it 
cost  for  material  to  spray  ten  apple  trees  averaging  a 
twenty-five-foot  spread  ? 

2.  Under  the  direction  of  the  teacher  and  with  great 
care  in  handling  both  before  and  after  mixing,  let  the  class 


GARDEN  AND  ORCHARD  SPRAYS  257 

join  in  making  up  a  Bordeaux  mixture,  substituting  one 
ounce  for  each  pound  of  the  ingredients  in  the  formula,  and 
a  corresponding  amount  of  water.  What  is  the  color  of  the 
compound  ?  Will  it  keep  indefinitely  if  covered  to  save  evap- 
oration?   Spray  a  few  trees  on  school  ground. 

3.  Make  a  lime-sulphur  mixture,  reducing  the  amounts 
as  before  to  one  ounce  for  each  pound  of  ingredients. 

4.  Make  up  a  kerosene  emulsion,  using  one  pint  of 
kerosene  and  a  corresponding  amount  of  other  ingredients. 

5.  Secure  catalogues  describing  spraying  machines,  ex- 
amine the  different  makes,  and  decide  which  is  best  for 
the  use  you  would  require  in  your  home  garden  ^nd  or- 
chard. If  uncertain  write  your  state  agricultural  college 
about  it. 


CHAPTER  XX 

HOME   CANNING   OF   FRUITS,   VEGETABLES 
AND  SOUPS 

IT  is  both  practicable  and  economical  to  can  the  surplus 
vegetables,  fruit,  sweet  corn,  greens  and  other  prod- 
ucts that  commonly  go  to  waste  in  the  orchard,  field  and 
garden. 

1.    Home  Canned  Products  and  the  Table 

When  the  average  home  has  learned  to  can  its  surplus 
fresh  food  products,  then  the  family  may  have  a  balanced 
ration  every  day  in  the  year,  and  the  cost  of  living  will  be 
greatly  reduced,  and  it  will  turn  the  garden  and  orchard  by- 
products into  net  profits. 

Home  canned  foods. — The  average  family  should 
plan  to  have  for  table  use  from  the  home-canned  supply 
one  quart  of  vegetables,  one  quart  of  fruit  and  one  quart 
of  greens  for  every  day  in  the  year  when  these  foods 
are  not  available  in  the  garden.  The  ration  based  on  these 
foods  and  supplemented  by  meats  is  better  balanced  and  less 
expensive  than  one  based  on  meats  with  a  scarcity  of  fruits 
and  vegetables.  Such  a  system  will  have  a  tendency  to  cut 
down  both  the  doctor's  bills  and  the  grocery  bills,  and  will 
.  furnish  a  more  palatable  diet. 

The  surplus  food  products. — ^The  importance  of  home 
canning  is  still  more  fully  realized  when  we  stop  to  con- 
sider that  in  most  states  probably  from  one-fifth  to  one-half 
of  all  the  fruits  and  vegetables  raised  are  allowed  to  go  to 

258 


•HOME  CANNING  259 

waste.  They  are  not  needed  fof  immediate  consumption, 
and  methods  of  grading,  crating  and  marketing  are  not 
understood.     Home  canning  may  save  all  of  this  surplus. 

Successful  canning  not  difficult. — By  following  simple 
recipes  and  time-tables  for  sterilization,  even  school  children 
can  successfully  can  anything  that  grows  in  the  garden, 
field  or  orchard.  Once  canned  the  product  has  a  money 
value,  and  is  as  standard  in  the  market  as  sugar  or  nails. 

The  list  of  recipes  and  time-tables  given  in  this  chapter 
are  written  for  use  in  connection  with  the  usual  home 
canning  utensils,  and  with  the  five  distinct  types  of  home- 
made or  commercial  canning  outfits.  Such  outfits  are  not 
expensive.  They  can  be  bought  all  the  way  from  eighty- 
nine  cents  up  to  twenty  dollars,  depending  on  type  and  size. 
All  kinds  of  glass  jars,  bottles  and  tin  cans  commonly  used 
in  the  old  methods  of  canning  can  be  used  with  these  de- 
vices. (Write  to  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  States'  Rela- 
tions Service,  Washington,  D.  C,  for  Farmers'  Bulletins 
and  circulars  of  instructions  on  home  and  club  canning.) 

The  following  recipes  and  canning  instructions  are  taken 
from  the  ''N.  R."  Series  of  Home  Canning  Club  Instruc- 
tions prepared  by  one  of  the  authors  and  his  assistants  for 
the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Extension 
Work,  Northern  and  Western  States.  These  instructions 
are  equally  valuable  for  home  canning  in  the  southern  as 
well  as  the  northern  states. 

Methods  of  Canning. — There  are  five  common  meth- 
ods of  canning  in  use: 

1.  Open  Kettle  Method. — The  oldest  method  is  what  is 
known  as  the  *'hot-pack"  or  "open-kettle"  method,  which  re- 
quires the  cooking  of  the  food  products  before  packing,  and 
seaHng  the  pack  after  the  sterilization  has  been  completed. 
This  is  the  most  laborious  and  the  most  unsatisfactory 
method,    especially   when    canning    vegetables    and    meats. 


260 


AGRICULTURE 


HOME  CANNING  261 

Very  few  people  succeed  by  this  method  in  the  conservation, 
of  their  surplus  vegetables,  meats,  fish,  etc.,  though  they 
succeed  very  well  in  canning  of  the  general  fruits. 

2.  Intermittent  Method. — The  ''intermittent"  process, 
or  fractional  sterilization  method  of  canning  of  fruits,  vege- 
tables, and  meat  is  a  very  successful  method,  as  far  as  the 
effect  on  bacteria  and  spores  and  the  keeping  of  the 
food  products  are  concerned,  but  is  very  unsatisfactory  with 
many  products,  in  that  it  requires  too  much  time  and  con- 
sumes too  much  fuel  as  well  as  the  energy  of  the  al- 
ready overworked  housewife.  There  are  few  people 
who  would  be  encouraged  to  go  into  the  extensive 
canning  of  the  by-products  and  surplus  fruits  and  vege- 
tables, such  as  vegetable  greens,  peas,  snap  beans,  lima 
beans,  tomatoes  and  sweet  corn,  if  the  only  way  open 
to  them  would  be  the  intermittent  process.  The  object 
of  these  instructions  is  to  encourage  the  canning  of  large 
quantities  of  the  cheaper  food  products,  available  on  prac- 
tically every  farm,  and  having  these  fresh  vegetables  and 
fruits  available  for  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  days  in 
the  year,  rather  than  for  an  occasional  holiday  or  Sabbath, 
or  for  use  when  friends  have  been  invited  into  the  home. 
By  adopting  the  single  period  or  cold-pack  method  and 
following  the  recipes  given  in  this  book  it  will  be  pos- 
sible to  reduce  the  cost  of  fuel  for  canning  purposes  greatly 
from  that  required  by  the  intermittent  process,  and  it 
will  reduce  the  amount  of  labor  and  time  on  the  same  basis. 
Also,  we  trust,  by  the  adoption  of  these  methods,  that  it 
will  not  only  be  possible  to  have  a  larger  supply  of  common 
vegetables  and  fruits  for  daily  use,  thus  making  a  better- 
balanced  ration  for  the  family,  but  that  it  will  result  in  a 
greater  net  profit  to  the  average  farmer,  and  a  lower  cost  of 
living  as  well  for  our  city  dwellers. 

3.     Cold-pack  Method. — The  method  used  by  the  best 


262  AGRICULTURE 

commercial  canneries  in  the  United  States  is  known  as  the 
"cold-pack"  and  single  period  method  of  canning.  This  sim- 
ply means  that  the  fruits  are  packed  in  their  fresh  and  natu- 
ral state  into  the  glass  jar  or  container.  Sirup  is  applied,  and 
the  sterilization  is  done  in  the  jar  or  container  after  it  is  par- 
tially sealed,  thus  making  it  impossible  iot  bacteria,  spores 
and  molds  to  enter  or  come  in  contact  with  the  food  product 
after  the  sterilization  has  taken  place.  By  this  method 
vegetables  are  blanched  in  boiling  hot  water,  plunged 
quickly  in  cold  water,  skins  removed  or  otherwise  cut  in  sec- 
tions and  prepared,  then  packed  in  container  and  sterilized 
in  partially  sealed  glass  jars  or  the  perfectly  sealed  tin  cans. 
By  this  method,  all  food  products,  including  general  fruits, 
vegetables,  and  meats  can  be  successfully  sterilized  in  a  sin- 
gle period,  with  but  one  handling  of  the  product. 

4.  Cold  Water  Method. — There  is  considerable  misun- 
derstanding as  to  the  meaning  of  the  term  "cold-pack 
method  of  canning."  It  is  often  interpreted  as  meaning  the 
cold-water  method  of  canning,  which  is  not  true.  It  simply 
means  that  the  food  products  are  packed  in  the  containers, 
jars  or  tin  cans,  in  their  fresh  state,  and  all  sterilization  or 
cooking  performed  after  the  pack  has  been  completely  or 
partially  sealed.  The  cap  is  never  removed  after  the  cook- 
ing has  been  completed  until  the  product  is  to  be  used  dur- 
ing the  year. 

The  cold-water  method  of  canning  referred  to  by  house- 
wives is  a  method  often  used  for  the  canning  of  rhubarb, 
green  gooseberries,  and  a  comparatively  few  other  sour 
and  highly  acid  vegetables  and  fruits.  We  do  not  recom- 
mend this  method  for  the  reason  that  most  of  these 
products  will  need  to  be  cooked  anyway  before  they  can 
be  used,  either  for  pie-filling  or  sauces,  and  it  is  a  saving 
of  labor  to  do  the  cooking  at  the  beginning,  when  the 
product  is  canned.     For  the  benefit  of  those  who  wish  to 


HOME  CANNING  263 

know  the  cold-water  method,  we  simply  suggest  that  the 
product  is  thoroughly  washed,  placed  in  a  strainer,  and 
scalding  hot  water  poured  over  the  product  very  rapidly; 
then  the  product  is  packed  in  its  fresh  state,  and  cold  pure 
water  applied  until  the  jar  is  full.  If  these  steps  are  taken 
quickly,  in  rapid  succession,  the  method  may  be  successful, 
especially  with  rhubarb  and  gooseberries. 

5.  Vacuum  Seal  Method. — The  vacuum  seal  method 
of  canning  is  a  comparatively  new  method  in  the  art  of  home 
canning.  If  using  this  method  you  can  follow  the  cold-pack, 
one  period  recipes  given  in  this  book  excepting  that  you  will 
have  to  secure,  the  special  vacuum  seal  jars  and  small  air 
pump.  By  leaving  a  half-inch  space  at  the  top  of  the  jar 
and  pumping  a  vacuum  into  the  jar  after  it  has  been 
blanched,  sterilized  and  cooled  a  little,  the  pressure  caused 
by  the  vacuum  will  make  it  unnecessary  to  sterilize  or 
cook  the  food  as  long  as  otherwise. 

CANNING  EQUIPMENT 

The  canning  outfits  available  for  the  sterilization  of  food 
products  during  the  canning  season  may  be  divided  into 
five  general  classes  and  four  types ;  steamers,  fireless  cook- 
ers and  bake  ovens  may  also  be  successfully  used. 

1.  Home-made  outfits,  such  as  wash  boilers,  tin 
pails,  milk  cans,  wash  tubs  and  lard  pails.  These  are  espe- 
cially made  convenient  and  more  efficient  when  false  bot- 
toms, with  lifting  handles,  are  added,  and  tight  fitting 
covers  are  made  possible. 

2.  Hot-water  bath  commercial  outfits.  These  out- 
fits are  constructed  usually  for  out-of-door  work  and  have 
sterilizing  vat,  lifting  trays,  fire  box,  and  smokepipe  all  com- 
bined into  one  piece.  They  are  light  and  convenient,  and 
are  planned  as  portable  outfits.  The  only  advantage  of 
these  outfits  over  the  home-made  devices  is  that  they  are 


264 


AGRICULTURE 


Backyard  club  demonstration  in  home  canning. 


Rural  life  director  training  Cook  County  (Illinois)  teachers 
in  methods  of  home  canning,  in  office  of  county  superintend- 
ent of  schools,  Chicago. 


HOME  CANNING 


265 


made  for  convenience  and  have  all  of  the  necessary  equip- 
ment with  which  to  can  and  operate  the  outfit.  Both  the 
home-made  and  hot-water  commercial  are  classed  as  hot- 
water  bath  outfits.  They  contemplate  that  the  sterilization 
of  all  food  products  will  be  done  in  boiling  hot  water  with 
water  over  top  of  highest  jar  or  can. 

3.     Water-seal  outfits.    This  is  a  type  of  canning  out- 
fit made  with  an  inner  seal  and  jacket  and  a  cover  that 


Two  types  of  ciuuiiiig  outfits:     (a)    the  water  seal;    (b)    the 
aluminum  steam  pressure  type,  used  by  a  canning  club  girl. 


passes  into  seal  and  between  the  outer  jacket  and  inner 
jacket,  thus  making  three  tin  or  galvanized  jackets  and  two 
water  columns  between  the  sterilizing  vat  and  the  outer 
surface  of  the  canner.  The  chief  value  of  this  type  of  can- 
ner  is  in  the  fact  that  one  can  maintain  a  higher  tempera- 
ture, and  keep  it  more  imiform  than  with  the  hot-water 
bath  outfits.  This  is  especially  valuable  in  the  canning  of 
vegetables  and  meats,  where  the  higher  temperature  means 


266  AGRICULTURE 

so  much  in  the  saving  of  time,  fuel  and  energy  in  effecting 
a  complete  sterlization  of  the  food  products. 

4.  Steam-pressure  outfits.  This  type  of  canner 
is  manufactured  so  as  to  carry  from  five  to  thirty  pounds 
of  steam  pressure  and  is  equipped  with  vat,  crate,  cover, 
thermometer  or  pressure  gauge,  safety  valve  and  steam 
pet-cock.  The  safety  valve  can  be  easily  regulated  so  as  to 
carry  different  pressure  values  and  thus  accommodate  the 
needs  of  various  vegetables  and  food  products. 

5.  Aluminum  pressure-cookers.  This  is  a  combina- 
tion outfit,  which  is  used  for  both  general  cooking  purposes 
and  the  canning  of  fruits,  vegetables  and  meats.  Because 
of  its  general  utility  in  the  home,  for  the  cooking  of  all 
kinds  of  meats,  vegetables,  soups,  gravies  and  stews,  it  can 
be  made  to  be  of  great  labor-saving  value  to  the  housewife. 
It  is  considered  the  fastest  canning  outfit  on  the  market. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  made  entirely  of  aluminum 
and  transmits  heat  very  quickly  and  will  carry  as  high  as 
thirty  pounds  of  steam  pressure.  Its  makeup  and  necessary 
parts  are  practically  the  same  as  in  the  all  steam-pressure 
outfits. 

Note. — The  time  scheduled  for  sterilization  given  in  all 
of  our  recipes  is  made  to  accommodate  the  four  distinct 
types  of  home  canners.  The  home-made  outfits  and  hot- 
water  commercial  outfits  are  classed  in  the  first  place  and 
under  the  head  of  "Hot-water  bath  outfits."  The  other 
three  are  classed  in  the  order  given  above  and  under  the 
same  names,  thus  making  the  four  classes  with  different 
time  requirements.  In  using  the  vacuum  seal  jars  an  air 
pump  is  used  for  sealing;  aside  from  this  you  can  follow 
same  steps  in  packing,  blanching,  adding  sirup,  water  and 
salt  but  substitute  the  vacuum  pressure  for  part  of  time 
for  the  final  cooking  period.  With  fruits  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  sterilize  fruit  enough  for  table  use  before  sealing. 


HOME  CANNING  267 

TEMPERATURE     FOR     BOILING     WATER     AT 
DIFFERENT  ALTITUDES 

Water  boils  at  sea  level  at  212°  Fahrenheit.  As  the  alti- 
tude increases,  the  degree  at  which  water  will  boil  gradually 
decreases.  The  following  table  is  intended  as  a  guide  to  de- 
termine the  increase  of  time  required  for  the  sterilization 
of  food  stuffs  in  the  canning  process : 

500  feet  above  sea  level,  211  degrees  Fahrenheit. 
1,000  feet  above  sea  level,  210  degrees  Fahrenheit. 
2,000  feet  above  sea  level,  208  degrees  Fahrenheit. 
3,000  feet  above  sea  level,  206  degrees  Fahrenheit. 
4,000  feet  above  sea  level,  204  plus  degrees  Fahrenheit. 
5,000  feet  above  sea  level,  202  plus  degrees  Fahrenheit. 
6,000  feet  above  sea  level,  201  plus  degrees  Fahrenheit. 
7,000  feet  above  sea  level,  199  plus  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

The  time  table  given  in  these  instructions  will  be  based 
upon  the  first  altitude  given,  five  hundred  feet  above  sea 
level.  For  every  four  thousand  feet  increase  in  altitude  it 
will  be  well  to  add  twenty-fiv*e  per  cent,  to  the  time  require- 
ments given  in  the  recipes  or  time  schedule  for  the  canning 
of  all  kinds  of  fruits,  vegetables,  greens,  meats  and  soups. 

CONTAINERS 

Glass  Jars. — For  home  use  it  is  conceded  by  most 
women  that  glass  jars  are  the  most  desirable  and  economical 
for  home  canning,  as  they  can  be  used  from  year  to  year, 
or  indefinitely,  by  simply  adding  new  rubbers  and  caps  each 
year.  Practically  all  of  the  various  types  of  glass  jars  avail- 
able on  the  market  can  be  used  successfully  in  the  canning 
of  all  kinds  of  fruits,  vegetables,  meats  and  soups  by  the 
"cold-pack  method"  outlined  in  these  instructions. 

In  the  handling  of  all  glass  top  jars,  with  the  top  and 
clamp  springs,  it  is  important  to  remember  that  the  rubbers, 


268  AGRICULTURE 

caps  and  top  spring  are  put  in  place,  while  the  clamp  spring 
is  left  up  or  raised  during  the  entire  period  of  sterilization. 
In  handling  "screw  top  jars,"  it  is  important  to  remem- 
ber that  rubbers  and  caps  are  put  in  place  and  turned  until 
they  touch  the  rubber,  sealed  partially,  not  too  tight.  They 
should  be  loose  enough  to  allow  the  escape  of  excessive  or 
expanded  air.  All  suction  or  self-seal  tops  such  as  Economy, 
Airseal,  etc.,  are  closed  completely  before  sterilizing  the 
products. 

MAKING  OF  BRINES  AND  SIRUPS 

Brines. — Brines  are  made  by  boiling  salt  water  to- 
gether to  a  certain  degree  of  density.  This  is  what  is  meant 
by  the  expression  "making  a  five  per  cent,  brine." 

Table  for  Making  Brine 


Salt 

Water 

PerCe 

1     lb. 

\2\  gal. 

1 

H  lb. 

12i  gal. 

14 

2     lb. 

12i  gal. 

2 

4     lb. 

\2\  gal. 

4 

5     lb. 

12i  gal. 

5 

10    lb. 

12i  gal. 

10 

Sugar  Sirups. — Fruit  sirups  are  made  by  boiling 
sugar  and  water  together  to  a  certain  density.  This  den- 
sity is  usually  denominated  by  per  cent,  density  and  is  meas- 
ured by  a  density  gage  or  by  what  is  sometimes  termed  a 
"mental-finger  gage,"  which  should  be  explained  as  an  ap- 
proximate estimate  of  the  concentration  or  density  of  sirups. 


Sugar 

PVater 

1  pt. 

2  pts. 

1  pt. 

1  pt. 

1  pt. 

ipt. 

1  pt. 

.         1  gill. 

2A   lb. 

1  gal. 

si  lb. 

1  gal. 

4i  lb. 

.1  gal. 

6*  lb. 

1  gal. 

8    lb. 

1  gal. 

HOME  CANNING  269 


Table  of  Sirup  Density 

Per  Cent. 
14 
24 
32 
40 
10 
15 
20 
30 
40 

A  practical  formula  for  sour  fruits  is  a  sirup  made  of 
three  quarts  of  sugar  to  two  quarts  of  water  boiled  to  a  thin, 
medium  thin,  medium  thick  or  thick  sirup. 

The  formula  for  sweet  common  fruits  is  made  of  three 
quarts  of  water  to  two  quarts  of  sugar,  boiled  to  a  thin, 
medium  thin,  medium  thick  or  thick  sirup. 

Density  Terms  Defined 

1.  Thin  sirup  is  sugar  and  water  boiled  sufficiently  to 
dissolve  all  sugar,  not  sticky. 

2.  Medium  thin  is  when  sirup  has  begun  to  thicken  and 
becomes  sticky  when  cooled  on  finger  tip  or  spoon. 

3.  Medium  thick  is  when  sirup  has  thickened  enough 
to  roll  or  bank  up  over  edge  of  spoon  when  you  try  to 
pour  it  out. 

4.  Thick  sirup  is  when  it  has  become  so  thick  that  it 
is  difficult  to  pour  out  of  spoon  or  container  (not  sugared). 

Thin  sirups  are  used  for  all  sweet  fruits  that  are  not 
too  delicate  in  texture  and  color,  such  as  cherries,  peaches, 
apples,  etc. 

Medium  thin  sirups  are  used  in  the  canning  of  the  me- 


270  AGRICULTURE 

dium  sweet  fruits,  such  as  blackberries,  currants,  dewber- 
ries, huckleberries,  raspberries,  peaches  and  pears. 

Medium  thick  sirups  are  used  in  the  canning  of  all  sour 
fruits,  such  as  gooseberries,  apricots,  sour  apples,  etc.,  and 
delicately  colored  fruits,  such  as  strawberries  and  red  rasp- 
berries. 

Thick  sirup  is  used  in  preserving  and  in  making  of  all 
kinds  of  sun  preserves. 

USEFUL  TABLES 
1,000  No.  2  empty  tin  cans  will  weigh  212  pounds. 
1,000  No.  3  empty  tin  cans  will  weigh  310  pounds. 
1  case  for  24  empty  No.  2  tin  cans  will  weigh  13  pounds. 
1  case  for  24  empty  No.  3  tin  cans  will  weigh  17  pounds. 

The  following  table  will  show  about  how  many  No.  2  and 
No.  3  cafis  may  be  filled  from  a  bushel  of  various  fruits  and 
vegetables ;  a  No.  3  can  is  equal  to  one  quart,  No.  2  is  equal 
to  a  pint^ 

No.  2  cans  No.  3  cans 

or  pint  or  quart 

Product                                         filled  filled 

1  bushel  windfall  apples 30  20 

1  bushel  standard  peaches 25  18 

1  bushel  pears    45  30 

1  bushel  plums 45  30 

1  bushel  blackberries 50  30 

1  bushel  windfall  oranges    (sliced)       22  15 

1  bushel  windfall  oranges   (whole)       35  22 

1  bushel  tomatoes    22  15 

1  bushel  shelled  lima  beans 50  30 

1  bushel  string  beans 30  20 

1  bushel  sweet  corn   45  25 

1  bushel  shelled  peas 16  10 

1  bushel  sweet  potatoes 30  20 


HOME  CANNING 


271 


M^  1  ^  •         ■m''-''-'-  ^''  .^;.--  -^^ ^ ^' ,f  ■'^' 

^^y*f§^-\    v.-             '  •■'   ,#''^--'-'    -  ^^-^-'^  ••■     '•      ,:^,: 

il  ** 

^'""^^^^^^^^    ^i^^ 

*«% 

/  ^^^__ii_ii^^ 

Home  garden   and  canning  club  members,   Geauga   Countj^ 
Oliio;  canning  surplus  vegetables. 


A  girl  garden  and  canning  champion  of  Iowa. 


19 


272  AGRICULTURE 

2.     Classification  of  Fruits  and  Directions  for  Canning 

For  convenience  we  suggest  that  fruits  be  classified  into 
four  distinct  groups  or  classes,  such  as  soft  fruits,  sour 
berry  fruits,  hard  fruits  and  citrus  fruits. 

1.  Soft  fruits,  such  as  strawberries,  blackberries,  dew- 
berries, sweet  cherries,  blue  berries,  peaches,  apricots,  etc. 

Recipe  for  Canning  Soft  Fruits:  Can  the  same  day 
fruit  is  picked.  Grade  and  rinse  the  fruit  by  pouring 
water  over  the  fruit  through  a  strainer.  Cull,  seed  and 
stem.  Pack  immediately  in  glass  jar  or  tin  can.  Add  boil- 
ing hot  sirup  to  top.  Place  rubber  and  top  in  place.  Par- 
tially tighten.  (Cap  and  tip  tins.)  Sterilize  in  hot- water 
bath  outfit  16  minutes;  in  water-seal  outfit  10  minutes; 
steam-pressure  outfit,  under  5  pounds  of  steam  8  minutes; 
in  aluminum  pressure-cooker,  from  15  to  20  pounds  of 
steam  5  minutes.  Remove.  Tighten  covers.  Invert  to 
cool  and  test  joints.  Wrap  glass  jars  in  paper  to  prevent 
bleaching  and  store. 

2.  Sour  berry  fruits,  such  as  currants,  gooseberries, 
cranberries  and  sour  cherries. 

Recipe  for  Canning  Sour  Berry  Fruits:  Can  same  day 
picked.  Stem,  hull  and  clean.  Blanch  in  hot  water  1  min- 
ute. Remove  and  dip  quickly  in  cold  water.  Pack  berries 
closely  in  container.  Add  hot  sirup  until  full.  Place  rub- 
ber and  cap  in  place.  Seal  partially,  not  tight.  (Cap  and 
tip  cans  completely.)  Sterilize  in  hot- water  bath  outfit  16 
minutes ;  in  water-seal  outfit,  12  minutes ;  in  5-pound  steam- 
pressure  outfit,  10  minutes ;  in  aluminum  pressure-cooker 
outfit,  under  10  pounds  of  steam,  5  minutes.  Remove  jars. 
Tighten  covers  and  invert  to  cool  and  test  joints.  Wrap  in 
paper  and  store. 

3.  Hard  fruits,  such  as  apples,  pears,  quince,  etc. 

Recipe  for  Canning  Hard  Fruits:  Grade.  Blanch  IJ 
minutes,  and  plunge  quickly  into  cold  water.  Remove 
skins  if  necessary.  Core,  pit  or  skin.  Pack  whole,  quar- 
tered, or  sliced,  as  desired.  Add  boiling  hot  sirup.  Place 
rubbers  and  tops  in  position.     Partially  tighten.     (Cap  and 


HOME  CANNING    .  273 

tip  tin  cans.)  Sterilize  20  minutes  in  hot-water  bath  out- 
fit; 12  minutes  in  water-seal  outfit;  8  minutes  under  5 
pounds  of  steam  in  steam-pressure  outfit ;  6  minutes  in 
aluminum  pressure-cooker,  under  10  pounds  of  pressure. 
Remove  jars.  Tighten  covers  and  invert  to  cool  and  test 
joints.  Wrap  glass  jars  in  paper  to  prevent  bleaching,  and 
store. 

4.  Citrus  fruits. — Oranges,  canned  whole  for  break- 
fast dishes  or  sliced  for  fruit  salads.  The  object  of  can- 
ning citrus  fruits  is:  first,  to  save  the  surplus  and  the  by- 
products; second,  to  furnish  wholesome  fruits  at  reason- 
able cost  to  more  people ;  third,  to  help  producer  to  trans- 
form his  by-products  into  net  profits. 

Recipe  for  Canning  Whole  Oranges:  Select  windfall 
or  packing  plant  culls.  Use  no  unsound  or  decayed  fruit. 
Remove  skins  and  surface  pulp.  Blanch  fruit  in  boiling  hot 
water  IJ  minutes  or  in  live  steam.  Dip  in  cold  water  quick- 
ly. Pack  containers  full.  Add  boiling  hot  thin  sirup  about 
18  or  20  per  cent,  density.  Place  rubber  and  cap  in  position. 
Partially  seal,  not  tight.  (Cap  and  tip  tin  cans.)  Sterilize 
12  minutes  in  hot-water  bath  outfit ;  8  minutes  in  water-seal 
outfit ;  6  minutes  in  steam-pressure  outfit,  under  5  pounds  of 
steam ;  4  minutes  in  aluminum  pressure-cooker  outfit,  un- 
der 10  pounds  of  steam.  Remove  jars.  Tighten  covers. 
Invert  to  cool  and  test  joints.  Wrap  glass  jars  with  paper 
to  prevent  bleaching  and  store. 

Recipe  for  Canning  Sliced  Oranges  for  Salad  Purposes: 
The  oranges  may  be  divided  into  their  natural  sections 
or  sliced  with  a  knife.  Pack  jar  or  container  full.  Pour 
over  product  hot  sirup  of  18  per  cent,  density.  Place  rubber 
and  cap  in  position.  Partially  seal,  not  tight.  (Cap  and 
tip  cans.)  Sterilize  10  minutes  in  hot-water  bath  outfit; 
6  minutes  in  water-seal  outfit ;  5  minutes  in  steam-pressure 
outfit,  with  5  pounds  of  steam ;  4  minutes  in  aluminum 
pressure-cooker  outfit,  under  10  pounds  of  steam.  Re- 
move jars.  Tighten  covers.  Invert  to  cool  and  test  the 
joints.  Wrap  glass  jars  with  paper  to  prevent  bleaching 
and  store. 


274  AGRICULTURE 

3.  Reasons  and  Explanations  for  use  of  terms,  '^Scald- 
ing/' ''Blanching"  and  "Cold-Dipping/' 

Scalding. — The  three  reasons  for  scalding  fruits  and 
vegetables  are  as  follows: 

1.  To  loosen  the  skins. 

2.  To  eliminate  objectionable  acids  and  acrid  flavors. 

3.  To  make  it  unnecessary  to  exhaust  the  product  be- 
fore final  cooking  or  sterilization  later  arrested  or  coagulated 
by  the  cold  dip. 

The  term  "scalding"  is  used  in  connection  with  the  hand- 
ling of  fruits  and  vegetables  from  which  skins  are  to  be 
removed,  and  simply  means  to  place  in  boiling  hot  water 
long  enough  to  loosen  the  skin. 

Blanching. — The  three  reasons  for  blanching  are  as 
follows : 

1.  To  eliminate  objectionable  acids  and  acrid  flavors. 

2.  To  reduce  the  bulk  of  vegetable  greens. 

3.  To  make  it  unnecessary  to  use  the  exhaust  period 
and  intermittent  process. 

The  term  "blanching"  means  to  place  product  in  hot 
water  for  a  sufficient  time  not  only  to  loosen  skin,  but  re- 
move excessive  and  objectionable  acids  and  reduce  bulk. 

Cold-dipping. — The  three  reasons  for  using  the  cold- 
dip  in  canning  are : 

1.  To  harden  the  pulp  under  the  skin  and  thus  permit 
the  removal  of  skin  without  injury  to  the  pulp. 

2.  To  coagulate  the  coloring  matter  and  make  it  harder 
to  break  down  during  the  sterilization  period. 

3.  To  make  it  easier  to  handle  the  products  in  packing 
and  to  shorten  the  time  of  processing  by  quickly  removing 
them  from  hot  and  exposing  them  to  cold  water. 

4.     Classification  of  Vegetables  and  Directions  for  Canning 

For  convenience  in  the  discussion  of  canning  recipes  and 

methods  of  procedure,  we  divide  vegetables  into  five  classes. 


HOME  CANNING 


275 


Automatic  can  sealing  machine,   seals   without  heat  or   solder. 
Sold,  or  rented  by  the  year,  to  clubs  and  individual  growers. 


276  AGRICULTURE 

1.  Vegetable  greens,  both  wild  and  domestic  (30 
varieties). 

Recipe  for  canning  vegetable  greens:  Prepare  and  can 
the  day  picked.  Sort  and  clean.  Blanch  in  vessel  with 
a  little  water  under  false  bottom  or  in  a  regular  steamer 
10  to  15  minutes.  Remove.  Plunge  quickly  into  cold 
water.  Cut  in  convenient  lengths.  Pack  in  jar  or  con- 
tainer tight  and  season  by  adding  strip  of  bacon  or  a  little 
chipped  beef,  olive  oil,  etc.,  to  taste.  Add  hot  water  to  fill 
crevices  and  level  teaspoonful  of  salt  to  each  quart.  If 
using  glass  jars  place  rubber  and  top  in  position,  partially 
seal ;  if  using  tin  cans,  cap  and  tip  completely.  Sterilize  90 
minutes  in  hot-water  bath  outfit ;  60  minutes  in  water-seal ; 
50  minutes  in  steam-pressure  outfit,  under  5  pounds  of 
steam;  25  minutes  in  aluminum  pressure-cooker  outfit,  at 
15  pounds  of  steam.  Remove  from  canner.  Tighten 
covers.  Invert  to  cool  and  test  joints.  Wrap  in  paper  to 
prevent  bleaching  and  store. 

Edible  Cultivated  Greens:  Swiss  chard,  kale,  Chinese 
cabbage  leaves,  upland  cress,  French  endive,  cabbage 
sprouts,  turnip  tops.  New  Zealand  spinach,  asparagus, 
spinach,  beet  tops,  cultivated  dandelion,  dasheen  sprouts, 
native  mustard,  Russian  mustard,  coUards,  rape,  fennel. 

Edible  Wild  Greens:  Pepper  greens,  lambs'  quarter, 
sour  dock,  smartweed  sprouts,  purslane  or  "pusley,"  chic- 
ory, poke  weed,  dandelion,  marshmarigold,  wild  mustard, 
milk  weed,  tender  sprouts  of  red-root. 

Cabbage,  Brussel  sprouts  and  cauliflower 

The  recipe  for  canning  these  vegetables  is  practically 
the  same  as  for  the  above  named  vegetable  greens  and  the 
same  instructions  may  be  followed,  except  that  these  prod- 
ucts should  be  soaked  in  cold  slightly  salty  water  for  20  or 
30  minutes  before  blanching. 

Experience  alone  will  teach  the  slight  variations  neces- 
sary in  amount  of  time  required  for  blanching,  amount  of 
seasoning  necessary  for  the  various  vegetable  greens,  etc. 


HOME  CANNING  277 

2.  Root  and  tuber  vegetables,  such  as  carrots,  par- 
snips, beets,  turnips,  sweet  potatoes,  etc. 

Recipe  for  Canning  Root  and  Tiiher  Vegetables: 
Grade  for  size,  color  and  degree  of  ripeness.  Wash  thor- 
oughly. Use  vegetable  brush.  Scald  in  boiling  hot  water, 
sufficiently  to  loosen  skin.  Plunge  quickly  in  cold  water. 
Scrape  or  pare  to  remove  skin.  Pack  whole  or  cut  in  sec- 
tions or  cubes  (sweet  potatoes  may  be  mashed  if  desired), 
as  required  by  the  home  or  market  standard.  Add  boiling 
hot  water  and  one  teaspoon ful  of  salt  to  the  quart.  Place 
rubbers  and  tops  in  position.  Partially  seal,  but  not  too 
tight.  (Cap  and  tip  tin  cans.)  Sterilize  90  minutes  in  hot- 
water  bath  outfit ;  75  minutes  in  water-seal  outfit ;  60  min- 
utes in  steam-pressure  outfit,  under  5  pounds  of  steam ; 
35  minutes  in  aluminum  pressure-cooker,  under  15  pounds 
of  steam. 

3.  Special  vegetables,  tomatoes  and  corn. 

Recipe  for  Canning  Tomatoes:  Grade  for  size,  ripe- 
ness and  color.  Scald  in  hot  water  enough  to  loosen  skins. 
Plunge  quickly  in  cold  water  (do  not  leave  tomatoes  in 
water  while  you  skin  and  core  them).  Remove.  Core  and 
skin.  Pack  whole,  crowd  them  into  space.  Fill  container 
with  whole  tomatoes  only.  Add  1  level  teaspoonful  of  salt 
to  each  quart.  Place  rubber  and  cap  in  position.  Partially 
seal,  but  not  tight.  (Cap  and  tip  tin  cans.)  Sterilize  32  min- 
utes in  hot-water  bath  outfit ;  22  minutes  in  water-seal  outfit ; 
15  minutes  in  steam-pressure  outfit,  under  5  pounds  of 
steam ;  10  minutes  in  aluminum  pressure-cooker,  under  10 
pounds  of  steam.  Remove  jars.  Tighten  covers.  Invert 
to  cool  and  test  joints.    Wrap  jars  in  paper  and  store. 

Recipe  for  Canning  Sweet  Corn  on  the  Cob:  Can  com 
same  day  picked.  Remove  husks,  silks,  and  grade  for  size. 
Blanch  on  the  cob  in  a  steam  chest  or  steamer  10  to  15  min- 
utes. Plunge  quickly  in  cold  water.  Pack  ears,  alternating 
butts  and  tips  in  half-gallon  glass  jars,  or  gallon  tin  cans. 
Pour  over  boiling  hot  water  and  add  2  level  teaspoon fuls  of 
salt  to  each  gallon.    Place  rubbers  and  tops  in  position.   Seal 


278  AGRICULTURE 

partially,  but  not  tight.  Cap  and  tip  tin  cans.  Sterilize 
in  hot-water  bath  outfit  180  minutes,  one  period;  90  min- 
utes in  water-seal  outfit;  60  minutes  in  steam-pressure  out- 
fit under  5  pounds  of  steam ;  40  minutes  in  aluminum 
pressure-cooker  under  20  pounds  of  steam.  Remove  jars. 
Tighten  covers.  Invert  to  cool  and  test  joints.  Wrap 
glass  jars  with  paper  and  store. 

Note. — When  sweet  corn  is  taken  from  jar  or  tin  can 
for  table  use,  remove  ears  as  soon  as  jar  or  can  is  opened. 
Heat  corn,  slightly  buttered,  in  steamer.  Do  not  allow  ears 
to  stand  in  water  or  to  be  boiled  in  water  the  second  time. 

Recipe  for  Canning  Sweet  Corn  Off- the  Cob:  Can  the 
same  day  as  picked.  Remove  husks,  silks.  Blanch  on  the 
cob  in  steamer  or  boiling  hot  water  10  to  15  minutes.  Plunge 
quickly  in  cold  water.  Cut  the  corn  from  the  cob  with  a  thin 
sharp-bladed  knife.  Pack  corn  in  jar  tightly  until  full.  Add 
1  level  teaspoonful  of  salt  and  a  little  sugar  to  each  quart, 
and  sufBcient  hot  water  to  fill.  Place  rubber  and  top  in  po- 
sition, seal  partially,  but  not  tight.  (Cap  and  tip  tin  cans.) 
Sterilize  180  minutes  in  hot-water  bath  outfits ;  90  minutes 
in  water-seal ;  60  minutes  in  steam-pressure  under  5  pounds 
of  steam ;  40  minutes  in  aluminum  pressure-cooker  under  20 
pounds  of  steam.  Remove  jars.  Tighten  covers.  Invert  to 
cool  and  test  joints.    Wrap  with  paper  and  store. 

4.  Other  vegetables,  such  as  lima  beans,  string  beans, 
peas,  okra,  etc. 

Recipe  for  Canning:  Can  same  day  vegetables  are 
picked.  Cull,  string  and  grade.  Blanch  in  boiling  hot  water 
or  in  steamer  for  5  minutes.  Remove  and  plunge  quickly  in 
cold  water.  Pack  in  container  until  full.  Add  boiling  hot 
water  to  fill  crevices.  Add  1  level  teaspoonful  of  salt  to 
each  quart.  Place  rubbers  and  tops  in  position.  Partially 
seal  but  not  tight.  (Cap  and  tip  tins.)  Sterilize  in  hot- 
water  bath  outfit  one  period  of  120  minutes;  90  minutes  in 
water-seal  outfit ;  60  minutes  in  steam-pressure  outfit,  under 
5  pounds  of  steam ;  40  minutes  in  aluminum  pressure-cooker, 
under  20  pounds  of  steam.  Remove  jars.  Tighten  covers 
and  invert  to  cool.    Wrap  jars  in  paper  and  store. 


HOME  CANNING  279 

5.  Pumpkin  and  squash. 

Recipe  for  Canning  (pie  filling):  Cut  up  into  conven- 
ient sections,  core  and  remove  skins.  Cook  for  30  minutes 
to  reduce  to  pulp.  Pack  in  glass  jar  or  tin  can.  Add  one 
cup  of  sugar,  one  teaspoonful  of  salt  to  each  quart  of  pulp. 
Place  rubber  and  top  in  position.  Partially  seal,  but  not 
too  tight.  Sterilize  60  minutes  in  hot-water  bath  outfit; 
50  minutes  in  water-seal  outfit;  40  minutes  in  steam-pres- 
sure outfit,  under  5  pounds  of  steam;  30  minutes  in  alumi- 
num pressure-cooker,  under  15  pounds  of  steam.  Remove. 
Tighten  covers.  Invert  to  cool  and  test  joints.  Wrap  in 
paper  and  store. 

Recipe  for  Canning,  Special  Dishes  (fried,  creamed, 
baked):  Cut  pumpkin  or  squash  into  small,  uniform  sized 
cubes.  Blanch  in  boiling  hot  water  for  10  minutes.  Plunge 
quickly  in  cold  water.  Pack  in  jar  until  full.  Add  boiling 
hot  water  and  1  level  teaspoonful  of  salt  and  one-half  cup 
sugar  to  the  quart.  Place  rubbers  and  caps  in  position,  not 
tight.  Sterilize  60  minutes  in  hot-water  bath  outfit ;  45  min- 
utes in  water-seal  outfit ;  35  minutes  in  steam-pressure  out- 
fit, under  5  pounds  of  steam ;  25  minutes  in  aluminum  pres- 
sure-cooker, under  20  pounds  of  steam. 


SPECIAL  RECIPES 

FRUITS 

Strawberries.  Can  fresh,  sound  berries  same  day 
picked.  Hull  (twist  berries  off  hull),  and  place  in  strainer. 
Pour  water  over  to  cleanse.  Pack  in  jar  or  tin  without 
crushing.  Pour  hot  sirup  over  berries  to  top.  Put  rubber 
and  cap  in  position,  not  tight.  (Cap  and  tip,  if  using  enam- 
eled tin  cans).  If  using  hot-water  bath  outfit  sterilize  12 
minutes,  if  using  water-seal  outfit  or  a  5-pound  steam-pres- 
sure outfit  sterilize  6  minutes,  or  if  using  an  aluminum 
pressure-cooker  outfit,  sterilize  4  minutes.  Remove  jars. 
Tighten  covers.     Invert  to  cool  and  test  the  joint.     Wrap 


280  AGRICULTURE 

jars  with  a  paper  to  prevent  bleaching  and  store.  •  (Sirup: 
\y2  quarts  sugar  to  1  quart  water,  boiled  to  medium  thick.) 

Strawberries.  (Berries  canned  by  this  recipe  will  not 
rise  to  top  in  sirup.)  Use  only  fresh,  ripe,  firm  and  sound 
berries.  Prepare  berries.  Add  8  oz.  of  sugar  and  2  table- 
spoonfuls  of  water  to  each  quart  of  berries.  Boil  slowly 
for  10  minutes  in  enameled  or  acid-proof  kettle,  covered 
with  a  well-fitted  cover  while  boiling.  Allow  berries  to 
cool  and  remain  over  night  in  a  covered  kettle.  Pack 
cold  berries  in  glass  jars.  Put  rubber  and  cap  in  position, 
not  tight.  (Cap  and  tip  if  using  enameled  tin  cans.)  If 
using  hot-water  bath  outfit  sterilize  10  minutes,  if  using 
water-seal  outfit  or  a  5-pound  steam-pressure  outfit  steri- 
lize 6  minutes,  or  if  using  an  aluminum  pressure-cooker  out- 
fit sterilize  4  minutes.  Remove  jars.  Tighten  covers.  In- 
vert to  cool  and  test  the  joint.  Wrap  jars  with  paper  to 
prevent  bleaching  and  store. 

Strawberry  Preserve. — Make  a  sirup  of  one  quart  of 
water  and  11  pounds  of  sugar  and  cook  in  an  open  kettle 
until  a  candy  thermometer  registers  265°  when  placed  in 
the  sirup.  Add  8  pounds  of  berries  to  the  sirup.  Cook 
very  slowly,  just  at  the  boiling  point.  Stop  the  cooking 
when  the  thermometer  registers  219°  and  pour  into  shallow 
pans  to  cool.  Hasten  cooling  by  pouring  sirup  over  berries. 
Skim  while  cooling.  Fill  into  jars  when  cold  and  allow  to 
stand  unsealed  for  4  days.  Put  rubber  and  cap  in  position, 
not  tight.  (Cap  and  tip,  if  using  enameled  tin  cans.)  If 
using  hot-water  bath  outfit  sterilize  20  minutes,  if  using 
water-seal  outfit,  or  a  five-pound  steam-pressure  outfit,  or 
a  pressure-cooker  outfit,  sterilize  15  minutes.  Remove  jars. 
Tighten  covers.  Invert  to  cool  and  test  the  joint.  Wrap 
jars  with  paper  to  prevent  bleaching  and  store. 

Cherry  Preserve.  Place  one  gallon  of  water  in  a 
kettle  and  add  10  pounds  of  pitted  cherries.     Boil  slowly 


HOME  CANNING  281 

for  18  minutes.  Add  12  pounds  of  granulated  sugar  and 
cook  until  product  is  boiling  at  temperature  of  219°.  Cool 
quickly  in  shallow  pans.  Pack  into  glass  jars.  Put  rubber 
and  cap  in  position,  not  tight.  (Cap  and  tip  if  using 
tin  cans.)  If  using  hot-water  bath  outfit  •  sterilize  20 
minutes,  if  using  water-seal  outfit,  or  5-pound  steam-pres- 
sure outfit,  or  a  pressure-cooker  outfit  sterilize  15  minutes. 
Remove  jars.  Tighten  covers.  Invert  to  cool  and  test  the 
joint.    Wrap  jars  with  paper  to  prevent  bleaching  and  store. 

Note. — When  using  pressure-cooker  outfits  on  preserves, 
keep  the  valve  open  during  period  of  sterilization;  in  all 
other  recipes  it  must  be  closed. 

Grapes.  Use  fresh  fruit  evenly  ripened.  Pick  care- 
fully from  the  stem,  wash  and  pack  in  glass  jars.  Cover 
w^ith  a  thin  sirup,  boiling.  Put  rubbers  and  caps  in  posi- 
tion, not  tight.  (Cap  and  tip  if  using  tin  cans.)  If  using 
hot-water  bath  outfit  sterilize  20  minutes,  if  using  water- 
seal  outfit  sterilize  15  minutes,  if  using  5-pound  steam- 
pressure  outfit  sterilize  10  minutes,  or  if  using  pressure- 
cooker  outfit  sterilize  5  minutes.  Remove  jars.  Tighten 
covers.  Invert  to  cool  and  test  the  joint.  Wrap  jars  with 
paper  to  prevent  bleaching  and  store. 

Wild  Grapes.  Use  fresh  fruit  evenly  ripened.  Pick 
from  stem  and  wash.  Pack  in  glass  jars.  Cover  with  thick, 
boiling  sirup.  Put  rubbers  and  caps  in  position,  not  tight. 
(Cap  and  tip  if  using  tin  cans.)  If  using  hot-water  bath 
outfit  sterilize  20  minutes,  if  using  water-seal  outfit  sterilize 
15  minutes,  if  using  5-pound  steam-pressure  outfit  sterilize 
12  minutes,  or  if  using  pressure  cooker  outfit  sterilize 
8  minutes.  Remove  jars.  Tighten  covers.  Invert  to  cool 
and  test  joint.  Wrap  jars  with  paper  to  prevent  bleaching 
and  store. 

Pears. — Use  sound,  ripe  fruit.  Prepare,  peel,  and 
core.     Remove   all  eyes.      Pack   whole   or   in   halves,   and 


282  AGRICULTURE 

blanch  10  minutes.  Cold  dip.  Pack  in  glass  jars  or  tin  cans. 
Pour  on  boiling  sirup,  medium  or  thin.  Put  rubbers  and 
cap  in  position,  not  tight.  (Cap  and  tip  if  using  tin  cans.) 
If  using  hot-water  bath  outfit  sterilize  30  minutes,  if  using 
water-seal  outfit  or  a  5-pound  steam-pressure  outfit  sterilize 
25  minutes,  or  if  using  a  pressure-cooker  outfit  sterilize  18 
minutes.  Remove  jars.  Tighten  covers.  Invert  to  cool  and 
test  joint.  Wrap  jars  with  paper  to  prevent  bleaching  and 
store. 

Wild  or  Damson  Plum.  Grade  fruit  for  size  and 
ripeness.  Wash  and  pack  in  glass  jars.  Fill  with  thin  or 
medium  sirup,  boiling.  Put  rubbers  and  caps  in  position, 
not  tight.  (Cap  and  tip  if  using  tin  cans.)  If  using 
hot-water  bath  outfit  sterilize  16  minutes,  if  using 
water-seal  outfit  or  5-pound  steam-pressure  outfit  sterilize 
12  minutes,  or  if  using  pressure-cooker  outfit  sterilize  8 
minutes.  Remove  jars.  Tighten  covers.  Invert  to  cool 
and  test  joint.  Wrap  jars  with  paper  to  prevent  bleaching 
and  store. 

Huckleberries.  Stem  and  clean  huckleberries.  Pack 
in  glass  jar  or  tin  can.  Fill  with  thin  hot  sirup.  Put  rubber 
and  cap  in  position,  not  tight.  (Cap  and  tip  if  using  tin 
cans.)  If  using  hot  water  bath  outfit  sterilize  20  minutes,  if 
using  water-seal  outfit  or  a  5-pound  steam-pressure  outfit 
sterilize  15  minutes,  or  if  using  pressure-cooker  outfit,  steri- 
lize 10  minutes.  Remove  jars.  Tighten  covers.  Invert  to 
cool  and  test  joint.  Wrap  jars  with  paper  to  prevent  bleach- 
ing and  store. 

Figs.  Select  and  grade  fruit.  Blanch  6  minutes  in 
boiHng  water  and  cold  dip.  Pack  in  glass  jar  or  tin  cans. 
Fill  with  medium  sirup.  Put  rubber  and  cap  in  position, 
not  tight.  (Cap  and  tip  if  using  tin  cans.)  If  using 
hot-water  bath  outfit  sterilize  40  minutes,  if  using 
water-seal  outfit  sterilize  30  minutes,  if  using  a  5-pound 


HOME  CANNING  283 

steam-pressure  outfit  sterilize  25  minutes,  or  if  using  a 
pressure-cooker  outfit  sterilize  20  minutes.  Remove  jars. 
Tighten  covers.  Invert  to  cool  and  test  the  joint.  Wrap 
jars  with  paper  to  prevent  bleaching  and  store. 

Rhubarb.  Wash  stalks.  Cut  the  pieces  ^  inches  in 
length.  (Do  not  remove  skin).  Blanch  2  minutes.  Cold 
dip.  Pack  in  glass  jars.  (Do  not  use  tin  cans.)  Pour  on 
thick  sirup,  boiling.  Put  rubber  and  cap  in  position,  not 
tight.  (Not  safe  to  use  tin  containers  unless  you  use  a 
medium  thick  sirup  of  about  38  per  cent,  density.)  If  using 
hot  water  bath  outfit  sterilize  20  minutes ;  if  using  water- 
seal  outfit  or  a  5-pound  steam-pressure  outfit  sterilize  15 
minutes,  or  if  using  an  aluminum  pressure  cooker  outfit 
sterilize  10  minutes.  Remove  jars.  Tighten  covers.  In- 
vert to  cool  and  test  the  joint.  Wrap  jars  with  paper  to 
prevent  bleaching  and  store. 

VEGETABLES 

Egg  Plant.  Remove  the  skin  of  the  egg  plant  and 
slice  across  the  fruit.  Make  slices  about  ^  or  %  inches 
thick.  Blanch  three  times  in  boiling  water  to  which  has 
been  added  a  tablespoonful  of  salt  per  quart.  Plunge  into 
cold  water  and  pack  in  glass  jars.  Fill  with  boiling  hot 
water  and  add  a  level  teaspoon ful  of  salt  per  quart.  Put 
rubber  and  cap  in  position,  not  tight.  (Cap  and  tip  if  using 
enameled  tin  cans).  If  using  hot  water  bath  outfit  sterilize 
60  minutes.  If  using  water-seal  outfit  or  a  5-pound  steam 
pressure  outfit  sterilize  45  minutes,  or  if  using  an  aluminum 
pressure  cooker  outfit  sterilize  30  minutes.  Remove  jars. 
Tighten  covers.  Invert  to  cool  and  test  the  joint.  Wrap 
jars  with  paper  to  prevent  bleaching  and  store. 

Corn  and  Tomato  (Combination).  Blanch  fresh  corn 
on  the  cob  6  minutes.  Cold  dip.  Cut  corn  from  cob.  Blanch 
tomatoes  1^  minutes  and  cold  dip.    Remove  skin  and  core. 


284  AGRICULIURK 

Chop  tomatoes  into  medium  pieces.  Mix  2  parts  of  tomatoes 
with  one  part  of  corn  and  mix  thoroughly.  Pack  in  glass 
jars  or  tin  cans.  Add  a  level  teaspoonful  of  sale  per  quart. 
Put  rubber  and  cap  in  position,  not  tight.  (Cap  and  tip  if 
using  enameled  tin  cans).  If  using  hot  water  bath  outfit 
sterilize  90  minutes.  If  using  water-seal  outfit  sterihze  75 
minutes.  If  using  a  5-pound  steam  pressure  outfit,  sterilize 
60  minutes,  or  if  using  an  aluminum  pressure-cooker  outfit 
sterilize  45  minutes.  Remove  jars.  Tighten  covers.  Invert 
to  cool  and  test  the  joint.  Wrap  jars  with  paper  to  prevent 
bleaching  and  store. 

Corn,  Tomatoes  and  String  Beans.  (Combination). 
Use  one  part  of  corn,  one  part  of  green  string  beans,  and 
three  parts  of  tomatoes.  Blanch  fresh  corn  on  the  cob 
for  6  minutes  and  cold  dip.  Cut  corn  from  the  cob,  cutting 
from  tip  to  butt.  Prepare  string  beans  and  cut  into  con- 
venient lengths.  Blanch  4  minutes  and  cold  dip.  Blanch 
tomatoes  1  to  3  minutes  and  cold  dip.  Remove  skin  and 
core.  Cut  into  medium  pieces.  Mix  three  products  thor- 
oughly. Pack  in  glass  jars  or  enameled  tin  cans.  Put  rub- 
bers and  caps  in  position,  not  tight.  (Cap  and  tip  if  using 
enameled  tin  cans.)  If  using  hot  water  bath  outfit  sterilize 
120  minutes,  if  using  water-seal  outfit  sterilize  90  minutes, 
if  using  a  5-pound  steam  pressure  outfit  sterilize  60  minutes, 
or  if  using  an  aluminum  pressure  cooker  outfit  sterilize  45 
minutes.  Remove  jars.  Tighten  covers.  Invert  to  cool  and 
test  the  joint.  Wrap  jars  with  paper  to  prevent  bleaching 
and  store. 

Chili  Peppers.  Use  either  red  or  green  peppers. 
Place  the  peppers  in  the  oven  and  bake  until  the  skins 
separate  from  the  pulp.  Remove  the  skins.  Take  out  seed 
and  core  if  product  is  to  be  used  for  salads.  Pack  solid  in 
glass  jars  or  tin  cans.  Pour  on  boiling  water  and  add  one 
level  teaspoonful  of  salt  per  pint.     Put  rubber  and  cap  in 


HOME  CANNING  285 

position,  not  tight.  (Cap  and  tip  if  using  enameled  tin 
cans).  If  using  hot  water  bath  outfit  steriHze  90  minutes, 
if  using  water-seal  outfit  sterilize  75  minutes,  if  using  a 
5-pound  steam  pressure  outfit  sterilize  60  minutes,  or  if 
using  an  aluminum  pressure-cooker  outfit  sterilize  40  min- 
utes. Remove  jars.  Tighten  covers.  Invert  to  cool  and 
test  the  joint.  Wrap  jars  with  paper  to  prevent  bleaching 
and  store. 

Cabbage  or  Brussel  Sprouts.  Use  small,  solid  heads. 
If  cabbage,  cut  into  convenient  sections  and  remove  core. 
Allow  product  to  soak  in  cold  salty  water  for  20  or  30  min- 
utes. Blanch  10  minutes.  Cold  dip.  (See  cauliflower.) 
Pack  in  glass  jars  or  enameled  tin  cans.  Pour  on  boiling 
water  and  add  a  level  teaspoonful  of  salt  per  pint.  Put  rub- 
ber and  cap  in  position,  not  tight.  (Cap  and  tip  if  using 
enameled  tin  cans.)  If  using  hot  water  bath  outfit  sterilize 
90  minutes,  if  using  water-seal  outfit  sterilize  75  minutes, 
if  using  a  5-pound  steam-pressure  outfit  sterilize  60  min- 
utes, or  if  using  an  aluminum  pressure-cooker  outfit  sterilize 
45  minutes  with  10  pounds  of  steam  pressure.  Remove 
jars.  Tighten  covers.  Invert  to  cool  and  test  the  joint. 
Wrap  jars  with  paper  to  prevent  bleaching  and  store. 

Cauliflower. — Use  the  flowered  portion. 

After  soaking  in  cold  salty  water  for  20  minutes 
blanch  three  minutes.  Plunge  into  cold  water.  Pack  in 
glass  jars  or  enameled  tin  cans.  Fill  with  boiling  water 
and  level  teaspoonful  of  salt  per  quart.  Put  rubber  and 
cap  in  position,  not  tight.  (Cap  and  tip  if  using  enam- 
eled tin  cans.)  If  using  hot  water  bath  outfit  sterilize  45 
minutes,  if  using  water-seal  outfit  sterilize  35  minutes,  if 
using  a  5-pound  steam-pressure  outfit  sterilize  30  minutes, 
or  if  using  an  aluminum  pressure  cooker  outfit  sterilize  20 
minutes.     Remove  jars.     Tighten  covers.     Invert  to  cool 


286  AGRICULTURE 

and  test  the  joint.    Wrap  jars  with  paper  to  prevent  bleach- 
ing and  store. 

MUSHROOMS 

Cautions.  Unless  you  are  absolutely  sure  that  you 
know  a  mushroom  when  you  see  it,  do  not  run  the  risk  of 
gathering  and  using  for  food  what  you  may  think  are  mush- 
rooms. A  very  large  number  of  people  are  poisoned  every 
year  because  of  carelessness  along  this  line.  There  are 
many  other  plants  of  the  mushroom-toadstool  varieties  that 
are  very  poisonous,  and  they  resemble  the  edible  mush- 
rooms very  much.  (See  Farmers'  Bulletin  204,  "Cultiva- 
tion of  Mushrooms.") 

Canning  of  Mushrooms.  Wash  and  trim  the  mush- 
rooms. If  small,  can  them  whole;  if  large,  they  may  be 
cut  up  into  sections.  Soak  in  cold  salty  water  for  20  min- 
utes. Blanch  mushrooms  in  boiling  water  for  five  minutes. 
Remove  and  plunge  quickly  into  very  cold  water.  Pack  in 
glass  jars,  and  add  boiling  hot  water  to  cover;  one  level 
teaspoonful  of  salt  to  the  quart.  Place  rubber  and  cap  in 
position,  not  tight.  If  using  hot-water  bath  outfit  sterilize 
90  minutes,  if  using  water-seal  outfit  sterilize  60  minutes,  if 
using  a  5-pound  steam-pressure  outfit  sterilize  50  minutes, 
or  if  using  an  aluminum  pressure-cooker  outfit  sterilize  un- 
der 10  pounds  of  steam  for  20  minutes.  Remove  jars. 
Tighten  covers.  Invert  to  cool  and  test  joints.  Wrap  the 
glass  jars  in  paper  to  prevent  bleaching  and  store. 

If  canning  mushrooms  in  tin,  always  use  vulcanized  or 
lacquered  cans.  Do  not  fail  to  blanch  and  cold-dip  before 
packing,  and  remove  the  mushrooms  immediately  after 
opening  the  tin  can. 


HOME  CANNING  287 

HOME  CANNING  OF  SOUPS 

Taken  from  Circular  N.  R.  34,  Series  of  Follow  Up  In- 
structions in  Home  Canning  Club  Project 

Prepared  by  George  E.  Farrell 

Assistant  in  Boys'  and  Girls'  Agricultural  Extension  Work, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

After  you  have  learned  to  can  fruits  and  vegetables  suc- 
cessfully, the  next  logical  step  is  to  transform  meat  scraps, 
bones,  ligaments  and  odds  and  ends  of  vegetables  and  ce- 
reals into  an  economical  as  well  as  very  palatable  product 
for  the  home — something  that  can  in  a  few  moments'  time 
be  prepared  and  made  ready  for  use  as  a  hot  dish  for  the 
winter. 

The  canning  of  vegetable  soups,  purees,  and  consommes 
is  thoroughly  practical,  and  should  be  a  part  of  the  canning 
work  of  every  home.  It  will  be  a  delight  to  the  housewife 
to  be  able  to  reach  to  a  shelf  for  a  home-canned  pack  of 
soup,  open  it,  heat  and  serve  within  a  few  moments  of  time. 

CANNING  RECIPES 

Soup  Stock. — Secure  25  pounds  of  beef  hocks,  joints, 
and  bones  containing  marrow.  Strip  off  fat  and  meat  and 
crack  bones  with  hatchet  or  cleaver.  Place  broken  bones 
In  a  thin  cloth  sack  and  place  the  same  in  a  large  kettle 
containing  5  gallons  of  cold  water.  Simmer  (do  not  boil) 
for  6  or  7  hours.  Do  not  salt  while  simmering.  Skim  off 
all  fat.  This  should  make  about  5  gallons  of  stock.  Pack 
hot  in  glass  jars,  bottles,  or  enameled  or  lacquered  tin  cans. 
Partially  seal  glass  jars.  Cap  and  tip  tin  cans.  Sterilize 
40  minutes  if  using  hot- water  bath  outfit;  30  minutes  if 

20 


288  AGRICULTURE 

using  water-seal  or  5-pound  steam-pressure  outfit ;  25  min- 
utes if  using  pressure-cooker  outfit. 

Checking  List. — Supplies  needed  before  making  soup 
stock.  Check  with  this  list  before  beginning  work  25  lb. 
of  beef  bones,  10  gal.  water. 

Vegetable  Soup. — Soak  ^  lb.  lima  beans  and  1  lb.  rice 
for  12  hours.  Cook  ^  lb.  pearl  barley  for  2  hours.  Blanch 
1  lb.  carrots,  1  lb.  onions,  1  medium-sized  potato,  and  1  red 
pepper  for  3  minutes  and  cold  dip.  Prepare  the  vegetables 
and  cut  into  small  cubes.  Mix  thoroughly  lima  beans,  rice, 
barley,  carrots,  onions,  potatoes,  red  peppers.  Fill  glass  jar 
or  the  enameled  tin  cans  three-fourths  full  of  the  above 
mixture  of  vegetables  and  cereals.  Make  a  smooth  paste 
of  Yz  lb.  of  wheat  flour  and  blend  in  5  gallons  soup  stock. 
Boil  3  minutes  and  add  4  oz.  salt.  Pour  this  stock  over 
vegetables  and  fill  cans.  Partially  seal  glass  jars.  Cap  and 
tip  tin  cans.  Sterilize  90  minutes  if  using  the  hot-water 
bath  outfit;  75  minutes  if  using  a  water-seal  or  5-pound 
steam-pressure  outfit;  30  minutes  if  using  the  pressure- 
cooker  outfit. 

Checking  List. — Supplies  needed  before  making  soup. 
After  filling  recipe,  check  with  this  list  and  then  sterilize: 
y^  lb.  lima  beans,  1  lb.  rice,  ^  lb.  pearl  barley,  1  lb.  car- 
rots, 1  lb.  onions,  1  medium-sized  potato,  1  red  pepper,  ^ 
lb.  flour,  4  oz.  salt,  5  gal.  soup  stock. 

Cream  of  Pea  Soup. — Soak  in  cold  water  8  lb.  of  dry 
peas  overnight.  Cook  until  soft.  Mash  fine.  Add  the 
mashed  peas  to  5^  gal.  of  soup  stock  and  bring  to  boil. 
Pass  the  boiling  liquid  through  a  fine  sieve.  Make  a  smooth 
paste  of  Yz  lb.  flour  and  add  paste,  10  oz.  of  sugar,  and  3 
oz.  of  salt  to  the  soup  stock.  Cook  until  soup  begins  to 
thicken.  Pack  in  glass  jars  or  tin  cans.  Partially  seal 
glass  jars.  Cap  and  tip  tin  cans.  Process  90  minutes  if 
using  hot-water  bath  outfit;  80  minutes  if  using  water- 


HOME  CANNING  289 

seal  outfit;  70  minutes  if  using  5-pound  steam-pressure 
outfit;  45  minutes  if  using  pressure-cooker  outfit. 

Checking  List. — S^^  gal.  soup  stock,  8  lb.  dry  peas,  5 
oz.  salt,  10  oz.  granulated  sugar,  ^  lb.  flour. 

Cream  of  Potato  Soup. — Boil  1^  lb.  of  potatoes,  sliced 
thin,  and  5  gal.  of  soup  stock  for  10  minutes.  Add  3  oz. 
of  salt,  14  teaspoonful  of  pepiper,  and  >^  lb.  of  butter,  and 
boil  slowly  for  5  minutes.  Make  3  tablespoonfuls  of  flour 
into  smooth  paste  and  add  to  the  above.  Cook  3  minutes 
and  pack  in  glass  jars  or  tin  cans  while  hot.  Partially 
seal  glass  jars.  Cap  and  tip  tin  cans.  Sterilize  90  minutes 
if  using  hot-water  bath  outfit ;  75  minutes  if  using  water- 
seal  outfit;  65  minutes  if  using  5-pound  steam-pressure 
outfit ;  45  minutes  if  using  a  pressure-cooker  outfit. 

Checking  List. — 5  gal.  soup  stock,  1^  lb.  thin  sliced 
potatoes  (culls  will  do),  3  oz.  salt,  ^  teaspoonful  pepper 
(scant),  y2  lb.  butter,  3  tablespoonfuls  flour. 

Bean  Soup. — Soak  3  lb.  of  beans  12  hours  in  cold  wa- 
ter. Cut  2  lb.  of  ham  meat  into  ^-inch  cubes  and  place 
in  a  small  sack.  Place  beans,  ham,  and  4  gals,  of  water 
in  kettle  and  boil  slowly  until  the  beans  are  very  soft.  Re- 
move the  ham  and  beans  from  the  liquor  and  mash  the 
beans  fine.  Return  ham  and  mashed  beans  to  the  liquor 
and  add  5  gal.  of  soup  stock  and  seasoning,  and  bring  to 
boil.  Fill  into  glass  jars  or  tin  cans  while  hot.  Partially 
seal  glass  jars.  Cap  and  tip  tin  cans.  Process  2  hours  if 
using  hot-water  bath  outfit ;  90  minutes  if  using  water-seal 
outfit;  75  minutes  if  using  5-pound  steam-pressure  outfit; 
60  minutes  if  using  pressure-cooker  outfit. 

Checking  List. — 5  gal.  stock,  3  lb.  beans,  2  lb.  lean 
ham,  4  gal.  water.    Salt  and  pepper  to  taste. 

Okra  Soup. — Slice  8  lb.  okra  into  thin  slices  the  round 
way.  Blanch  10  minutes  and  cold  dip.  Boil  1^  lb.  rice 
for  25  minutes.    Mix  okra  and  rice  and  fill  cans  or  jars  half 


290  AGRICULTURE 

full.  To  5  gal.  soup  stock  add  5  oz.  sait,  %  teaspoonful 
of  coriander  seed,  and  }i  teaspoonful  of  powdered  cloves, 
and  bring  to  boil.  Fill  remaining  portion  of  jars  or  cans. 
Partially  seal  glass  jars.  Cap  and  tip  tin  cans.  Process 
2  hours  if  using  hot-water  bath  outfit ;  90  minutes  if  using 
water-seal  outfit;  75  minutes  if  using  5-pound  steam-pres- 
sure outfit ;  60  minutes  if  using  pressure-cooker  outfit. 

Checking  List. — 5  gal.  soup  stock  (see  No.  1),  8  lb. 
okra,  y/[  teaspoonful  coriander  seed,  ^  teaspoonful  pow- 
dered cloves,  \y2  lb.  rice,  5  oz.  salt. 

Tomato  Pulp  for  Cream  of  Tomato  Soup. — Place  to- 
matoes in  a  wire  basket  or  piece  of  cheesecloth  and  plunge 
into  boiling  water  from  1  to  3  minutes.  Plunge  into  cold 
water.  Remove  the  skin  and  core.  Place  tomatoes  in 
kettle  and  boil  30  minutes.  Pass  tomato  pulp  through  a 
sieve.  Pack  in  glass  jars  or  tin  cans  while  hot,  and  add 
a  level  teaspoonful  of  salt  per  quart.  Partially  seal  glass 
jars.  (Cap  and  tip  tin  cans.)  Sterilize  20  minutes  if  using 
hot-water  bath  outfit ;  18  minutes  if  using  water-seal  or  5- 
pound  steam-pressure  outfit;  15  minutes  if  using  pressure- 
cooker  outfit. 

Cream  of  Tomato  Soup  from  Canned  Tomato  Pulp. — 
Place  the  contents  of  a  quart  glass  jar  or  No.  3  can  of 
tomato  pulp  in  kettle.  Add  >^  teaspoonful  of  baking  soda, 
pepper  and  salt  to  taste,  2  teaspoon fuls  of  granulated 
sugar.  Boil  for  7  minutes.  Place  1  quart  of  milk  and  2 
tablespoonfuls  of  butter  in  a  kettle  and  simmer  for  7  min- 
utes. Add  contents  of  tomato  kettle  to  contents  of  milk 
kettle  and  boil  for  5  minutes.  The  product  is  then  ready 
to  serve. 

Checking  List. — 1  qt.  or  No.  3  can  tomato  pulp,  y,  tea- 
spoonful baking  soda,  2  teaspoon  fuls  granulated  sugar,  1  qt. 
milk,  2  tablespoonfuls  butter.     Salt  and  pepper  to  taste. 

Chicken  Soup  Stock. — Place  30  lb.  chicken  in  10  gal. 


HOME  CANNING  291 

of  cold  water  and  simmer  for  5  hours.  Remove  meat  and 
bones  and  then  strain.  Add  sufficient  water  to  make  10 
gal.  of  stock.  Fill  glass  jars  or  tin  cans  with  hot  stock. 
Partially  seal  glass  jars.  Cap  and  tip  tin  cans.  This  stock 
is  used  to  make  soup  where  the  term  "chicken-soup  stock'* 
is  used.  Process  90  minutes  if  using  hot-water  bath  outfit ; 
75  minutes  if  using  water-seal  outfit ;  60  minutes  if  using 
5-pound  steam-pressure  outfit;  45  minutes  if  using  pres- 
sure-cooker outfit. 

Checking  List. — 30  lb.  chicken,  10  gal.  water. 

Chicken.  Broth  with  Rice. — For  each  gallon  of  soup 
stock  use  12  oz.  of  rice.  Boil  rice  30  minutes.  Fill  jars 
or  tin  cans  two-thirds  full  of  rice  and  the  remainder  with 
soup  stock.  Partially  seal  glass  jars.  Cap  and  tip  tin  cans. 
Process  90  minutes  if  using  hot-water  bath  outfit ;  75  min- 
utes if  using  water-seal  outfit ;  60  minutes  if  using  5-pound 
steam-pressure  outfit;  45  minutes  if  using  pressure-cooker 
outfit. 

Checking  List. — 1  gal.  chicken-soup  stock,  12  oz.  rice. 

Chicken  Gumbo. — Cut  2  lb.  ham  into  small  cubes  and 
boil  30  minutes.  Mince  3  lb.  chicken  and  chop  }^  lb. 
onions  fine.  Make  a  smooth  paste  of  y^  lb.  flour.  Add 
above  to  5  gal.  of  chicken-soup  stock.  Then  add  ^  lb. 
butter  and  %  lb-  salt  and  boil  10  minutes.  Then  add  3  oz. 
powdered  okra  mixed  with  1  pint  water.  Fill  into  glass 
jars  or  tin  cans  while  hot.  Partially  seal  glass  jars.  Cap 
and  tip  tin  cans.  Process  90  minutes  if  using  hot-water 
bath  outfit;  75  minutes  if  using  water-seal  outfit;  60  min- 
utes if  using  5-pound  steam-pressure  outfit;  45  minutes  if 
using  pressure-cooker  outfit. 

Checking  List. — 5  gal.  chicken-soup  stock,  3  lb. 
minced  chicken,  2  lb.  ham,  ^  lb.  onions,  j4  lb.  butter,  % 
lb.  salt,  j4  lb.  flour,  3  oz.  powdered  okra. 

Vegetables    (Mixed)    Without   Stock. — Many  people 


292  AGRICULTURE 

would  like  vegetable  soup  during  the  winter  season,  but 
lind  it  impracticable  to  secure  the  soup  stock  during  the 
summer  season  when  the  vegetables  are  so  abundant  that 
they  are  rotting  in  the  garden.  It  is  suggested  that  the 
vegetable  portion  of  the  soup  be  canned  during  the  summer 
and  made  available  when  the  soup  stock  is  prepared  during 
the  winter.  It  makes  the  preparation  of  soup  a  simple 
matter  whenever  the   stock  is  available. 

Soak  6  lb.  lima  beans  and  4  lb.  dry  peas  over  night. 
Boil  each  y^  hour.  Blanch  16  lb.  carrots,  6  lb.  cabbage,  3 
lb.  celery,  6  lb.  turnips,  4  lb.  okra,  1  lb.  onions  and  4  lb. 
parsley  for  3  minutes  and  plunge  quickly  in  cold  water. 
Prepare  vegetables  and  chop  into  small  cubes.  Chop  the 
onions  and  celery  extra  fine.  Mix  all  of  the  above  thor- 
oughly and  season  to  taste.  Pack  in  glass  jars  or  tin  cans. 
Fill  with  boiling  water.  Partially  seal  glass  jars.  Cap 
and  tip  tin  cans.  Process  90  minutes  if  using  hot-water 
bath  outfit ;  60  minutes  if  using  water-seal  outfit  or  5-pound 
steam  pressure  outfit;  45  minutes  if  using  pressure-cooker 
outfit. 

Checking  List. — 16  lb.  carrots  (small),  6  lb.  cabbage, 
3  lb.  celery  (stems  and  leaves),  6  lb.  turnips,  6  lb.  lima 
beans,  4  lb.  okra,  1  lb.  onions,  4  lb.  parsley,  4  lb.  dry  peas, 
salt  and  pepper  to  taste. 

Note. — These  recipes  are  prepared  for  the  canning  of 
soups  in  the  home  and  for  home  consumption.  Families 
using  these  recipes  for  sale  within  the  state  should  consult 
the  Food  Commissioner  of  the  State.  When  the  products 
are  packed  for  interstate  or  foreign  shipment,  the  packer 
should  consult  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  for  regulations  govern- 
ing measure,  labels,  trade-marks  and  contents.  The 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture, Washington,  D.  C,  should  be  consulted  regarding 


HOME  CANNING  293 

meat-inspection  regulations  intended  for  interstate  or  for- 
eign shipment  when  canned  soups  contain  definite  portions 
of  meat. 

5.     Canning  of  Windfall  and  Cull  Apples 

The  windfall  and  cull  apples  may  be  divided  into  two 
grades.  For  first  grade  use  the  whole,  reasonably  sound 
fruit;  for  second  grade  use  the  worm-eaten,  partially  de- 
cayed and  injured  fruit.  Do  not  can  any  injured  or  de- 
cayed part  nor  allow  apples  to  become  over-ripe  before 
canning. 

Recipe  for  Canning  Whole,  Reasonably  Firm  Apples. 
Wash  apples.  Remove  core  and  blemishes.  Place  whole 
apples  in  blanching  tray  or  blanching  cloth,  and  blanch  in 
boiling  hot  water  for  two  minutes.  Remove  and  dip 
quickly  into  cold  water.  Pack  in  large,  empty  glass  jars 
or  gallon  tin  cans.  Pour  over  the  product  a  hot,  thin  sirup 
of  about  18  per  cent,  density.  Place  rubber  and  top  in  po- 
sition, seal  partially,  not  tight.  (If  using  tin  cans,  cap  and 
tip  completely.)  Process  one-half  gallon  or  gallon  contain- 
ers 20  minutes  in  boiling  hot  water,  in  home-made  or  hot- 
water  bath  outfits;  15  minutes  in  water-seal;  10  minutes 
in  steam-pressure  outfit,  with  5  pounds  of  steam  pressure; 
5  minutes  in  aluminum  pressure-cooker  outfit,  under  15 
pounds  of  steam  pressure.  Remove  jars,  tighten  covers, 
invert  to  cool  and  test  joints.  Wrap  in  paper  and  store. 
The  time  will  have  to  be  varied  according  to  ripeness  and 
condition  of  the  fruit.  Use  just  enough  time  to  steriHze 
perfectly,  and  yet  not  to  change  the  color  or  reduce  the 
pulp  to  sauce. 

If  the  apples  are  firm  and  tart,  the  same  recipe  can  be 
used  in  canning  whole  apples  with  both  cores  and  peelings 
removed. 

Daily  Use  of  Canned  Whole  Apples.— 1.  Breakfast 
dish,  with  cream  and  sugar  added.  2.  Apple  salad. 
3.  Apple  dumpling.  4.  Apple  pot  pie.  5.  Baked  apple. 
6.  Apple  puddings,  filling  for  pot  roasts,  etc. 


294  AGRICULTURE 

Recipe  for  Pie  Filling. — Use  second  grade  of  windfalls 
or  culls.  Wash,  core,  pare,  and  remove  all  decayed  or  in- 
jured spots.  Slice  apple  quickly  into  a  basin  containing 
slightly  salted  cold  water,  to  keep  from  discoloring.  Pack 
fresh  cold  product  in  glass  jars  or  tin  cans.  Add  one  tea- 
cupful  of  hot  thin  sirup  to  each  quart  of  about  18  per  cent, 
density.  Place  rubber  and  top  in  position;  partially  seal, 
but  not  tight.  Cap  and  tip  completely  if  using  tin  cans. 
Sterilize  12  minutes  in  hot-water  bath,  home-made  outfit; 
10  minutes  in  water-seal  outfit ;  6  minutes  under  5  pounds 
of  steam  pressure ;  4  minutes  in  aluminum  pressure-cooker, 
under  10  pounds  of  steam  pressure.  Remove  jars,  tighten 
covers,  invert  to  cool,  and  test  joints.  Wrap  in  paper  and 
store. 

Note. — When  using  this  filling  for  apple  pies,  strain 
the  sirup  from  the  pulp  and  save  for  use,  place  sliced  prod- 
uct on  pie  crust  layer  in  the  apple-pie  tins,  sprinkle  with 
brown  sugar,  cinnamon  or  nutmeg,  place  pie  dough  over 
top,  trim,  and  bake  in  a  properly  heated  oven  for  10  to  12 
minutes.  The  apple  pie  baked  from  this  product  will  be  as 
good,  if  not  better  than  the  ordinary  pie  baked  from  fresh 
apples,  and  can  be  prepared  and  baked  in  less  than  half  the 
time  usually  required  when  making  pie  from  the  fresh  and 
more  expensive  fruit. 

Recipe  for  Quartered  Apples  for  Fruit  Salads. — Select 
best  grade  of  culls,  firm  and  rather  tart  varieties.  Core, 
pare  and  quarter.  Drop  into  a  basin  containing  slightly 
salted  cold  water.  Pack  these  quartered  pieces  tightly  in 
jar  or  tin  container.  Add  a  teacupful  of  thin,  hot  sirup 
to  each  quart.  Place  rubber  and  top  in  position;  partially 
seal,  not  tight.  Cap  and  tip  completely  tin  cans.  Sterilize 
12  minutes  in  hot-water  bath,  home-made  outfit ;  10  minutes 
in  water-seal  outfit;  6  minutes  under  5  pounds  of  steam 
pressure ;  4  minutes  in  aluminum  pressure-cooker  under  10 
pounds  of  steam  pressure.  Remove  jars,  tighten  covers, 
invert  to  cool  and  test  joints.    Wrap  in  paper  and  store. 

Keeping  Apple  Cider  Sweet  by  the  Home  Canning 
Method. — Fill  fruit  jars  with  fresh  apple  cider.  Add  a 
tablespoonful  of  sugar  to  each  quart.  Place  rubber  and  cap 
in  position,  partially  tighten,  or  cap  and  tip  the  tin  cans. 


HOME  CANNING  295 

Sterilize  in  hot-water  bath  outfit  for  30  minutes  180  degrees 
heat ;  in  water-seal  outfit  for  20  minutes,  same  temperature. 
Do  not  undertake  to  sterilize  apple  juice  or  any  other  fruit 
juice  under  steam  pressure  or  high  temperature.  Remove 
jars,  tighten  cover,  invert  to  cool  and  test  joints. 

The  average  fruit  farmer  may  not  be  able  to  make  apple 
sirup  commercially  profitable,  but  during  seasons  when  there 
are  a  large  number  of  culls  and  windfalls,  when  markets  are 
glutted,  it  is  a  matter  of  business  economy  to  utilize  by- 
products and  reduce  these  apples  to  food  value  of  some 
kind.  The  making  of  apple  sirup  for  the  family's  winter 
use  is  then  quite  worth  while, 

Reducing  Sweet  Apple  Cider  to  Sirup. — Wash  ap- 
ples, remove  all  decayed  and  worm-eaten  spots.  Use 
only  sweet  cider.  The  sterilizing,  reducing  vat  or  ket- 
tle should  be  a  third  larger  than  required  to  hold  contents. 
Powdered  calcium  carbite  is  sometimes  called  carbonate 
of  lime  and  is  a  low-priced,  harmless  chemical  available  at 
any  drug  store.     It  looks  something  like  powdered  chalk. 

Recipe  for  Apple  Sirup. — ^Add  five  ounces  of  powdered 
calcium  carbonate  to  seven  gallons  of  apple  cider.  Boil 
in  kettle  or  vat  vigorously  for  a  period  of  five  minutes. 
Pour  the  liquid  into  vessels,  preferably  glass  jars  or  pitch- 
ers, allow  to  stand  six  to  eight  hours  or  until  perfectly  clear. 
Pour  the  clear  liquid  into  preserving  kettle.  Do  not  allow 
sediment  at  bottom  to  enter.  Add  to  this  one  level  tea- 
spoonful  of  lime  and  stir  thoroughly.  The  process  is  com- 
pleted by  boiling  down  rapidly  to  a  clear  liquid.  Use  den- 
sity gage  or  a  candy  thermometer  and  bring  it  up  to  204 
degrees  F.,  or  without  thermometer  reduce  bulk  to  one- 
seventh  of  original  volume.  Remove,  cool  rapidly  in  cold 
water  until  it  shows  same  consistency  as  maple  sirup.  Do 
not  allow  to  candy.  Pour  sirup  into  fruit  jars,  pitchers, 
bottles,  etc.,  and  allow  to  cool  slowly.  (Slow  cooling  is 
important.)  The  sirup  can  be  cooled  eflfectively  in  fireless 
cooker  or  wash  boiler.  The  white  sediment  which  settles 
during  the  cooling  process  is  called  by  chemists  malate  of 
lime,  and  is  a  harmless  compound  of  lime  or  acid  of  the 


296  AGRICULTURE 

apple.  After  this  process  the  sirup  is  ready  to  be  poured 
into  fruit  jars  or  bottles.  Place  rubber,  cap  or  cork  into 
position  and  not  tight.  Insert  containers  in  hot  water  and 
sterilize  for  12  minutes  in  hot- water  or  wash-boiler  outfit; 
10  minutes  in  water-seal  outfits  ;  8  minutes  in  steam-pressure 
outfits  under  5  pounds  of  steam,  or  5  minutes  in  aluminum 
pressure-cooker  under  15  pounds  pressure. 

Apple  sirup  made  by  this  method  is  a  very  pure  and 
high-grade  product.  Orchardists  who  have  a  large  amount 
of  waste  every  year  would  do  well  to  establish  a  local  apple 
sirup  plant  or  perhaps  a  group  of  orchardists  could  com- 
bine and  secure  building,  steam  retort  canners  and  con- 
venient apparatus,  simplify  the  method  and  get  most  suc- 
cessful and  profitable  results. 

6.     Tinning,  Capping  and  Soldering  Repair  Work 

Tin  cans. — The  use  of  tin  cans  in  the  canning  of  the 
"get  away"  fruits  and  vegetables  is  entirely  practical  for 
the  average  farmer,  trucker  and  fruit  grower.  The  ques- 
tion of  soldering  and  tipping  the  caps  is  a  comparatively 
simple  matter.  Any  child,  twelve  years  of  age  or  over, 
can  easily  learn  how  successfully  to  seal  a  tin  can.  It 
requires  a  hand  capping  iron  and  tipping  steel,  a  little 
soldering  flux,  small  brush,  and  a  little  practise.  Self- 
heating  capping  irons  are  available  and  hand  or  auto- 
matic tin  can  sealers  can  be  purchased  or  even  rented  by 
the  year. 

When  tin  cans  are  used  for  the  canning  of  green  vege- 
tables, meats,  fish,  oysters,  etc.,  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to 
use  the  lacquered  or  enameled  cans. 

Size  of  tin  cans. — There  are  several  standard  sizes  of 
tin  cans  in  common  use  for  canning  purposes.  They  are 
denominated  by  number  and  with  reference  to  the  diameter 
of  the  opening.  It  is  always  necessary  to  state  whether 
you  desire  plain  tin  cans,  lacquered  or  enameled.   In  buying 


HOME  CANNING 


297 


caps,  always  ask  for  the  solder  hemmed  caps  and  give 
diameter  of  can  opening.  When  buying  tin  cans  to  be  used 
with  the  automatic  sealing  machine  you  will  not  need  either 
solder  nor  heat.  Simply  buy  caps  and  the  metal  rims  with 
your  cans. 

Soldering   equipment   necessary. — Capping  steel   tip- 
ping copper,  solder,  sal  ammoniac,  a  few  scraps  of  zinc,  two 


Repairing  leak  in  water-bucket. 


and  seven-sixteenths  inch  opening,  tipping  copper,  solder, 
flux,  a  small  brush,  porcelain  glass  or  stone  cup  in  which 
to  keep  flux,  a  soft  brick  and  a  file.  If  using  automatic 
sealer  none  of  those  things  is  needed. 

Soldering  flux. — Soldering  flux,  which  may  be  pur- 
chased ready  for  use,  is  a  solution  of  crude  muriatic  acid 
and  2inc  diluted  with  water  and  strained  through  a  cloth. 


298 


AGRICULTURE 


Capping   iron^   showing    position    of    hand    and    upright    rod. 
Also  how  iron  is  applied  to  solder  hemmed  cap. 


HOME  CANNING  .  299 

It  IS  used  for  cleaning  the  irons  and  for  brushing  the 
tin  and  solder  surfaces  so  as  to  make  it  possible  for  the 
solder  in  its  melting  condition  to  adhere  to  the  tin.  Pow- 
dered resin  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  soldering  flux. 
A  soldering  paste  is  also  manufactured  which  is  very 
serviceable.  The  following  soldering  preparation  or  flux 
has  been  found  to  be  very  desirable,  and  is  cleaner  than  the 
old  flux : 

Zinc  chloride 3.6  oz. 

Ammonium  chloride 72.0  grains. 

Water 1      quart. 

Tinning  a  capping  iron. — Purchase  5  ,or  10  cents' 
worth  of  sal  ammoniac  at  the  drug  store.  Melt  in  this  a  lit- 
tle solder.  Heat  the  capping  iron  enough  so  that  it  will  melt 
the  solder  easily.  Place  the  iron  in  the  vessel  containing  the 
mixture  of  sal  ammoniac  and  solder.  Rotate  iron  in  this 
until  the  soldering  edge  of  the  iron  has  become  bright  or 
thoroughly  covered  with  the  solder. 

Tinning  a  tipping  copper. — The  tipping  copper  is 
tinned  very  much  the  same  as  the  iron.  Sometimes  it  is 
desirable,  however,  to  file  or  scrape  the  tipping  copper  a 
bit  so  as  to  make  it  smooth  and  to  correct  the  point.  Heat 
the  iron  and  rotate  the  tip  of  this  iron  in  the  mixture  of  sal 
ammoniac  and  solder  until  the  tip  has  been  covered  with  the 
melted  solder  and  rendered  bright  as  silver.  The  copper 
should  be  filed  to  nearly  a  sharp  point.  All  particles  of 
smudge,  burned  material,  etc.,  should  be  removed  from 
iron  before  tinning. 

Capping  a  tin  can. — When  capping  full  cans,  ar- 
range them  in  rows  upon  the  table  while  the  capping 
and  tipping  irons  are  in  the  fire  heating.  Take  a  handful 
of  solder-hemmed  caps  and  place  the  caps  on  all  cans,  ready 
to  be  capped.     Then  take  the  flux  jar  and  small  brush. 


300 


AGRICULTURE 


Place  finger  on  vent  hole,  hold  cap  in  place,  and  run  the 
brush  around  the  solder-hemmed  cap  evenly,  with  light 
stroke  of  the  hand.  Do  this  with  all  cans  ready  to  be 
capped.  Then  take  capping  iron  from  the  fire.  Insert  the 
upright  steel  in  center.  Hold  capping  iron  above  cap  until 
center  rod  touches  cap  and  holds  it  in  place.  (See  page 
298.)     Then  bring  cap  down  in  contact  with  all  four  points 


(A)  Self-heating  capping  iron.  (B)  Flux  jar  and  brush.  (C) 
Solder-hemmed  cap.  (D)  Ammonia  bar  for  cleaning  irons. 
(E)  Wire  solder.  (F)  Tipping  copper  and  method  of  applica- 
tion. 


of  solder-hemmed  cap  and  rotate  back  and  forth  about  three 
strokes.  Do  not  bear  down  on  tipping  iron.  A  forward  and 
back  stroke  of  this  kind,  if  properly  applied,  will  perfectly 
solder  the  cap  in  place.  Remove  capping  iron  and  inspect 
the  joint. 

If  any  pinholes  are  found,  repair  or  recap.     It  may  be 
necessary  to  use  a  piece  of  wire  holder  or  a  waste  solder 


HOME  CANNING  301 

rim  from  a  cap  to  add  more  solder  to  the  broken  or  pinhole 
places  of  a  cap. 

Tipping  a  tin  can. — Now  take  flux  cap  and  brush. 
Dip  brush  lightly  in  flux  and  strike  the  vent  hole  a  side 
stroke,  lightly,  with  brush  and  flux. 

Use  the  waste  solder-hemmed  cap  rim  or  wire  solder. 
Place  point  of  wire  solder  over  vent  hole.  Place  upon  this 
the  point  of  the  hot,  bright  tipping  copper.  Press  down 
in  a  rotary  motion.     Remove  quickly. 

A  little  practise  will  not  only  make  this  easy  but  a 
smooth,  perfect  joint  will  be  the  result. 

Note: — After  the  fruits,  soups  and  vegetables  have  been 
sealed  and  processed  the  required  length  of  time,  they  should 
be  removed  and  cooled  quickly.  When  using  tin  cans,  it  is 
best  to  plunge  them  into  cold  water  at  once  after  the  steriliza- 
tion has  been  completed. 

Use  of  soldering  tools  for  repair  work  in  the  home. — 

By  the  use  of  the  solder,  flux,  sal  ammoniac,  capping 
steel  and  tipping  iron,  it  is  possible  in  a  few  minutes  of  time 
to  solder  the  leaks  in  wash  boiler,  tin  pails,  milk  pans  and 
other  vessels  of  kitchen,  creamery,  etc.  This  will  not  only 
save  time  for  the  farmer  and  the  housewife,  but  will  often- 
times save  considerable  expense  and  worry. 


PART  III.    SOIL 


CHAPTER  XXI 
NATURE  OF  SOIL 

IN  our  discussion  of  plants  and  crops  we  have  constantly 
referred  to  the  soil.  What  is  soilf  Whence  does 
it  come  ?  What  relation  does  it  bear  to  plant  life,  and  hence 
to  our  own  lives?  Take  a  handful  of  "dirt"  and  crumble 
it  between  your  fingers;  of  what  does  it  consist,  what  is 
its  nature? 

1.     Origin  of  the  Soil 

Soil  did  not  always  exist  as  it  is  to-day.  When  the  earth 
was  young  and  the  crust  was  forming  there  was  no  soil. 
There  was  only  rock.  And  it  is  out  of  the  weathering  of 
this  surface  rock  that  the  soil  has  come;  and  the  process  is 
still  going  on  whenever  rock  is  exposed.  Soil  is  but  par- 
ticles of  rock,  to  which  has  been  added  organic  matter  com- 
ing from  the  plants  and  animals  that  have  lived  on  it  or  in  it. 

The  w^eathering  of  rock. — Rock  is  made  into  soil  by 
two  different  processes,  disintegration  and  decomposition. 
By  disintegration  is  meant  the  breaking  up  of  rock  into 
small  particles  without  changing  their  nature.  By  decom- 
position is  meant  such  breaking  up  by  chemical  action  that 
the  nature  of  the  particles  is  changed. 

The  chief  agencies  causing  the  disintegration  of  rocks 

302 


NATURE  OF  SOIL  303 

are  sudden  changes  of  temperature  and  the  action  of  frost. 
When  masses  of  rock  are  heated  by  the  sun  they  expand; 
sudden  cooHng  at  night  or  from  change  of  weather  causes 
so  rapid  a  contraction  that  they  are  rent  asunder.  Water 
freezing  in  crevices  also  constantly  breaks  masses  of  rock 
into  smaller  pieces. 

Rocks  undergo  decomposition  largely  through  changes 
due  to  the  action  of  chemicals  carried  in  water.    The  min- 


^4 

U-^ 

jk 

■  1 

^Bf'^-' '      ■   ^"^ 

^ 

I 

K. . 

■ 

A  plowing  contest. 

eral  substances  in  the  rocks  are  dissolved,  and  new  prod- 
ucts formed. 

Surface  and  subsoil. — ^The  terms  soil  and  subsoil  are 
used  to  distinguish  the  top  portion  from  the  soil  that 
lies  underneath.  The  line  between  the  dark  humus-colored 
part  and  the  lighter  soil  below  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the 
division  between  soil  and  subsoil.  Another  distinction  made 
is  to  call  all  that  lies  below  the  depth  of  tillage  subsoil.  No 
such  dividing  line  can  be  sharply  drawn,  however,  as  much 
organic  matter  is  found  below  the  humus  line,  and  the  depth 

21 


304  AGRICULTURE 

of  tillage  does  not  mark  a  natural  division  in  layers  of  the 
soil.  Surface  soil  differs  from  subsoil  chiefly  in  the  organic 
matter  it  contains. 

2.     Organic  Matter  in  Soil' 

Examine  carefully  a  lump  of  common  field  soil.  Pul- 
verize it  and  spread  it  out  on  a  paper.  In  addition  to  the 
grains  of  sand,  silt  and  clay  w^hich  represent  the  rock  por- 
tions, note  all  the  different  organic  particles,  such  as  pieces 
of  roots,  fibers  of  plants,  and  parts  of  insects."  Place  it 
under  a  magnifier,  and  see  whether  you  can  make  still  fur- 
ther discoveries. 

Need  of  organic  matter. — Although  the  rock  particles 
make  up  far  the  greater  part  of  the  mass  of  the  soil,  or- 
ganic matter  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  plants.  Indeed, 
it  is  practically  impossible  to  raise  crops  on  soil  lacking  in 
organic  constituents.  All  the  upper  layers  of  ordinary  soil 
contain  from  two  to  five  per  cent,  of  organic  material,  com- 
ing chiefly  from  the  roots  and  stems  of  plants. 

Humus. — When  vegetation  decays  on  top  of  the 
ground  it  is  really  burned  up  as  effectually  as  if  put  into  a 
stove,  only  more  slowly.  The  gases  pass  off  into  the  air 
and  only  a  little  ash  remains  on  the  soil.  From  this  proc- 
ess the  soil  receives  comparatively  little  benefit.  If,  how- 
ever, decay  takes  place  under  the  surface,  where  but  little 
oxygen  is  present,  a  substance  is  produced  which  is  called 
humus.  All  soil  on  which  plants  are  grown  is  therefore 
constantly  producing  humus  from  the  roots,  and  from  the 
stubble  and  stems  if  these  are  turned  under.  Dig  up  a  piece 
of  timothy  sod  and  note  the  mass  of  roots — ^about  two  tons 
of  roots  to  the  acre  on  a  good  field.  Blue-grass  yields  some 
six  tons  of  roots  to  the  acre.  Soils  that  are  cropped  contin- 
uously with  the  common  cereals  and  the  crops  removed  with- 


NATURE  OF  SOIL  305 

out  returning  manure  to  the  field  become  deficient  in  humus, 
and  the  yield- is  decreased. 

Effects  of  humus  on  the  soil. — The  most  easily  noted 
effect  of  humus  is  in  the  darkening  of  the  soil.  The  so- 
called  ''black"  soils  get  their  color  from  the  abundance  of 
humus  they  contain.  The  coloring  is  accomplished  by  the 
partially  decayed  and  partially  preserved  black  organic  mat- 
ter coating  over  the  small  particles  of  the  soil.  The  depth 
to  which  humus  extends,  ranging  from  a  few  inches  to  sev- 
eral feet,  jcan  be  noted  at  any  wayside  ditch  by  the  line  be- 
tween the  dark  soil  on  top  and  the  lighter  soil  beneath. 

Humus  serves  several  very  important  uses  in  the  soil: 

( 1 )  it  acts  as  a  storehouse  for  different  kinds  of  plant  food ; 

(2)  it  increases  the  capacity  of  the  soil  to  hold  water;  (3) 
it  aids  in  both  creating  and  conserving  heat  in  the  soil ;  (4) 
it  favors  the  growth  of  bacteria  helpful  to  plants;  (5)  it  im- 
proves the  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  making  it  more 
porous  and  more  easily  cultivated. 

Living  organisms. — Reference  has  already  been  made 
to  the  influence  of  certain  bacteria  in  the  fixing  of  nitrogen 
in  the  soil.  The  soil  harbors  many  different  kinds  of  bac- 
teria and  other  organisms.  It  is  fairly  teeming  with  life, 
some  of  which  is  hostile  to  plant  growth,  but  more  of  which 
is  necessary  to  successful  plant  development. 

Other  organic  matter. — Besides  living  organic  matter 
and  that  which  has  undergone  chemical  changes  converting 
it  into  humus,  most  soils  contain  a  certain  amount  of  veg- 
etable matter  in  the  form  of  roots  and  stems  of  plants 
which  have  not  yet  begun  the  process  of  decomposition. 
These  affect  the  soil  chiefly  in  making  it  more  accessible 
to  air  and  light,  and  more  permeable  to  water. 


306  AGRICULTURE 

3.     Texture  of  Soils 

Secure  samples  of  three  different  field  soils,  (1)  a  clay 
soil,  (2)  a  silt  soil,  and  (3)  a  sandy  soil.  Place  each  of 
these  one  inch  deep  in  a  bottle.  Now  fill  all  three  bottles 
with  water  and  shake  for  several  minutes.  Put  the  bottles 
in  a  quiet  place  and  let  the  contents  settle.  Note  which 
soil  settles  to  the  bottom  most  quickly.  Keep  a  record  of 
the  time  required  for  water  to  become  clear  in  each  bottle. 

Meaning  of  texture.— By  texture  of  soil  is  meant 
the  degree  of  fineness  or  coarseness  of  the  particles  of  which 
it  is  composed.  The  finest  soil  particles,  which  will  remain 
in  suspension  clouding  water  for  hours,  are  called  clay.  The 
next  finest,  which  will  settle  in  about  one  hour,  are  silt.  The 
coarser  particles,  which  will  settle  almost  at  once,  are  called 
sand  or  gravel. 

Most  crop  soils  have  all  three  of  these  grades  or  sizes  of 
particles  in  their  make-up.  Tlie  texture  of  the  soil  depends 
on  the  proportion  of  each  in  the  mixture.  Soils  are  named 
in  accordance  with  the  particular  one  of  these  elements  that 
outweighs  all  others. 

If  the  very  fine  particles  are  in  excess,  we  speak  of  a 
clay  soil ;  if  the  texture  is  intermediate,  of  a  loam  soil ;  and 
if  coarse,  of  a  sandy  or  gravelly  soil.  We  also  use  the  terms 
clay  loam,  silt  loam  and  sandy  loam,  etc.,  to  describe  the 
texture. 

Composition  of  three  soil  types. — A  mechanical  an- 
alysis of  three  types  of  soil  texture  made  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  shows  the  following  pro- 
portions of  soil  particles  in  each: 


NATURE  OF  SOIL 


307 


Type  of  soil 

Fine 
gravel 

Cse 
sand 

Med. 
sand 

Fine 
sand 

Very 
fine 
sand 

Silt 

Clay 

Norfolk  sand  (truck  soil) 
Wabash  clay  (riv.  bot.)- 
Silt    Loam  (corn    soil)__ 

...3% 

.__0 

.__0 

15% 
1% 
1% 

22% 
1% 
1% 

38% 
3% 

2% 

10% 

7% 
8% 

8% 
49% 
73% 

4% 
37% 
15% 

From  this  table  it  is  seen  that  Norfolk  sand,  which  is 
an  excellent  soil  for  truck  gardening  on  the  Atlantic,  is 
eighty-eight  per  cent,  sand  and  gravel,  and  only  twelve  per 
cent,  silt  and  clay  combined.  Middle  western  silt  loam, 
such  as  grows  most  of  our  field  corn,  is  three-fourths  silt, 
and  fifteen  per  cent,  clay  and  twelve  per  cent.  sand.  River- 
bottom  clay  soils  are  slightly  more  than  one-third  clay,  and 
almost  one-half  silt. 


4.    Structure  of  Soils 

Take  a  piece  of  clay  in  your  hand.  Try  to  crumble  it 
into  small  particles.  Do  the  same  with  a  piece  of  loam; 
with  a  lump  of  sandy  soil.  Note  that  some  soils  plow  up 
in  great  clods,  while  others  break  up  into  small  pieces,  pro- 
ducing what  is  called  a  mellow  condition.  Have  you  no- 
ticed that  in  some  places  the  ground  cakes  and  cracks  open 
when  it  becomes  very  dry,  while  in  other  places  it  remains 
soft  and  unbroken  no  matter  how  dry  it  becomes?  These 
differences  are  matters  of  soil  structure. 

Soil  structure. — By  soil  structure  is  meant  the  mode 
in  which  particles  adhere  to  one  another,  causing  them  to 
cling  together  in  solid  masses  hard  to  break  up,  or  forming 
but  loosely  joined  lumps  easily  broken  or  pulverized. 

Clay  soils  are  of  a  heavy,  dense,  clinging  structure,  dif- 
ficult to  break  apart,  hence  hard  to  plow.  Silt  loams 
and  sand  loams,  on  the  other  hand,  are  friable;  that  is, 
they  are  easily  broken  up.     They  plow  or  pulverize  easily 


308  AGRICULTURE 

because  they  are  not  so  adhesive.    All  soils  that  are  lacking 
in  humus  tend  to  become  dense  and  resisting  in  structure. 

Causes  affecting  soil  structure. — The  chief  adhesive 
force  holding  soil  particles  together  in  clusters,  grains,  or 
lumps  is  the  water  aims  that  surround  the  particles.  Each 
separate  particle  is  covered  by  a  thin  film  of  water,  whose 
effect  is  much  the  same  as  a  film  of^  rubber.  Let  a  number 
of  small  soil  particles,  each  surrounded  by  its  water  film, 
come  into  contact,  and  their  individual  films  all  merge  into 
one,  and  by  its  tension  unites  these  particles  in  a  single  gran- 
ule, or  cluster.  These  clusters  are  in  a  similar  way  joined 
into  still  larger  clusters,  and  so  on  until,  in  fine  clay  soils, 
one  continuous  mass  is  formed.  As  clay  soils  dry  out  the 
films  break,  shrinkage  occurs,  and  the  surface  cracks  open. 

The  greater  adhesive  power  of  clay  soils  comes  from 
the  fineness  of  their  particles.  The  larger  the  number  of 
particles  in  a  given  mass  of  soil,  the  greater  the  aggregate 
surface  of  these  particles,  and  hence  the  greater  the  amount 
of  water  films  needed  to  bind  the  particles  together.  Sandy 
soils  do  not  form  into  granules,  or  lumps,  because  the  aggre- 
gate surface  of  the  particles  is  not  sufficient  to  supply  the 
binding  force  of  water  films  necessary  to  hold  them  together. 

It  has  been  carefully  estimated  that  the  particles  of  a 
cubic  foot  of  soils  of  different  textures  have  the  following 
amounts  of  surface: 

Coarse  sandy  loam 40,000  square  feet. 

Sandy  loam 65,000 

Silt  loam 100,000      " 

Clay  soil 150,000      " 

From  these  comparisons  it  is  clear  that  the  water  films 
are  several  times  greater  in  area  in  clay  soils  than  in  sandy 
soils,  hence  the  tendency  to  adhesiveness  in  clay  soils  is 
correspondingly  increased. 


NATURE  OF  SOIL  309 

Soil  structure  and  tilth. — You  have  seen  some  seed 
beds  that  were  granular  or  full  of  lumps,  with  very  little 
fine  earth  for  packing  about  the  seeds.  Others  are  finely 
pulverized,  and  favorable  for  plant  growth.  The  condition 
presented  by  the  soil  with  reference  to  plant  growth  is 
called  its  tilth. 

Tilth  depends  chiefly  on  soil  structure.  Dense  heavy 
soils  that  have  a  tendency  to  form  into  lumps  when  plowed, 
or  that  easily  bake  after  rain,  make  it  difficult  to  maintain  a 
good  tilth.  On  the  other  hand,  a  good  tilth  is  equally  hard 
to  maintain  on  soils  that  easily  burn  out  in  a  drought,  or 
that  for  any  reason  are  not  good  reservoirs  of  water. 


5.    Erosion  of  the  Soil 

Note  the  color  of  the  soil  on  some  cultivated  hilltop 
and  on  the  lower  ground  at  the  foot. 

1.  Why  is  the  color  on  the  hilltop  lighter?  Why  is 
the  crop  yield  less?  Are  there  any  slopes  near  by  with 
gullies  washed  out  ? 

2.  Have  you  seen  sheets  of  soft  earth  which  have  been 
carried  by  the  wash  from  heavy  rains  and  spread  over  low 
ground  or  along  the  courses  of  streams?  Where  does  this 
soil  come  from  ?  What  is  its  texture,  fine  or  coarse  ?  What 
is  the  structure  of  this  overflow  soil,  heavy  and  dense,  or 
friable?  Is  such  soil  fertile?  Must  this  fertility  be  lost 
from  the  ground  from  which  the  wash  came? 

3.  Have  you  ever  seen  banks  of  soil  built  by  the  car- 
rying of  soil  particles  in  the  wind  ?  Great  masses  of  wind- 
built  soil,  called  loess,  are  to  be  found  in  Illinois,  Wisconsin, 
Iowa,  eastern  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  and  northern  Mis- 
souri.    These  loessial  soils  consist  chiefly  of  silt. 

4.  Which  loses  more  soil  from  the  action  of  the  wind, 
hilltops  or  valleys?  In  certain  western  plains  regions  as 
much  as  an  inch  of  top  soil  is  sometimes  removed  in  a  single 
dust  storm  lasting  for  twelve  hours. 


310 


AGRICULTURE 


-  Nature  of  erosion. — By  erosion  is  meant  the  wearing" 
or  carrying  away  of  soil  by  the  ac^tion  of  running  water  and 
the  wind.  Erosion  by  running  water  takes  place  in  some 
degree  on  all  slopes;  the  hills  are  gradually  but  constantly 
being  carried  into  the  valleys.  But  it  is  on  the  steep  hillsides 
where  the  velocity  of  the  water  is  greatest  that  most  damage 
is  done.  The  reason  for  this  is  easily  seen  when  it  is  re- 
membered that  the  transporting  power  of  water  increases 


A  hillside,  showing  the  effects  of  water  erosion. 

as  the  sixth  power  of  its  velocity.  This  means  that  doubling 
its  velocity  increases  the  carrying  power  sixty-four  times; 
trebling  its  velocity  increases  the  carrying  power  seven  hun- 
dred and  twenty-nine  times,  and  so  on. 

The  texture  of  the  soil  has  much  to  do  with  erosion. 
All  soils  that  permit  ready  absorption  of  water,  as  from 
rains  or  melting  snow,  leave  less  to  run  over  the  surface, 
and  so  are  less  subject  to  erosion  than  dense  clay  soils. 

Effects  of  water  erosion. — Erosion  by  running  water 


NATURE  OF  SOIL  311 

not  only  produces  gullies  and  ditches  that  interfere  with 
cultivation,  but  greatly  reduces  the  fertility  of  hilltops  and 
slopes  by  general  surface  washing.  For  the  best  parts 
of  the  soil  are  carried  away  by  erosion.  Organic  mat- 
ter is  relatively  light,  and  so  floats  oif ;  the  finer  clay  and 
silt  particles,  as  we  have  seen,  remain-  long  in  sus- 
pension in  water  and  are  carried  away,  while  the  coarser 
portions  are  left  behind.  And  it  is  just  this  organic  mat- 
ter and  the  finer  soil  particles  that  contain  the  best  part 
of  the  plant  food.  No  wonder  then  that  the  hilltops  have 
a  thin  poor  soil,  and  that  the  valleys  are  noted  for  their 
fertility. 

Prevention  of  erosion. — While  soil  erosion  can  not  be 
wholly  prevented,  it  can  be  greatly  checked.  And  nature 
suggests  one  effective  remedy  in  covering  all  soil  with  vege- 
tation. It  is  bare  soil  that  washes  and  blows  away.  Even 
a  steep  hillside  when  covered  with  grass  is  reasonably  free 
from  erosion.  For  the  stems  tend  to  delay  the  downward 
rush  of  water,  thus  causing  it  to  soak  into  the  ground,  and 
the  roots  bind  the  soil  together.  This  indicates  that  steep 
slopes  should  be  used  for  pasturage,  meadows  and  wood 
lots  rather  than  for  cropping.  The  addition  of  organic  mat- 
ter in  the  form  of  manure  also  lessens  the  danger  from 
washing,  since  it  increases  the  capacity  of  the  soil  to  absorb 
water,  and  also  tends  to  bind  the  soil  together. 

Hillsides  when  tilled  should  be  plowed  along  the  slope 
rather  than  up  and  down,  and  in  many  sections  it  is  neces- 
sary to  terrace  the  hillsides.  This  delays  the  forming  of 
rivulets  and  favors  absorption  of  water.  Every  furrow 
leading  down  the  hill  is  the  beginning  of  a  gully  in  lines  of 
heavy  rains.  Even  the  marks  left  by  the  wheels  of  a  corn 
planter,  unless  leveled  over  by  harrowing,   will   serve  as 


312  AGRICULTURE 

water  channels  and  result  in  waste  of  soil  and  washing  out 
of  the  seed  or  plants. 

Gullies  once  started  should  be  leveled  immediately  by 
use  of  the  plow  or  other  form  of  cultivation.  Pack 
straw,  hay,  or  manure  at  the  head  of  the  channel,  or  at 
intervals  along  its  course,  as  this  will  do  much  to  stop 
the  erosion,  especially  if  used  in  time.  Sheet,  or  sur- 
face, washing  is,  however,  a  source  of  greater  damage 
than  the  formation  of  gullies.  For  sheet  erosion,  though 
gradual,  is  constant  on  the  slopes  of  all  tilled  fields. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Select  a  spot  on  your  home  farm  representing  its 
typical  soil,  dig  down  with  a  spade  or  soil  auger  and  take 
two  samples,  one  from  a  depth  of  six  inches,  and  one  of 
•twenty  inches.    How  do  the  samples  differ  (1)  as  to  texture, 

(2)  as  to  organic  matter,  (3)  as  to  structure?  How  deep 
does  the  humus  extend?  Bring  samples  to  school,  and 
compare  with  those  from  the  different  farms  represented. 

2.  Place  some  of  each  sample  in  a  bottle  or  glass  of 
water  and  mix  well.  Allow  the  sand  to  settle  (How  long?), 
and  pour  the  water  off  the  top  into  a  third  receptable.  Allow 
the  clay  to  settle  until  the  water  becomes  clear.  (How  long 
is  required?)  Now  determine  as  nearly  as  you  can  what  are 
the  proportions  of  clay,  silt  and  sand  in  the  soils.  How 
would  you  name  the  texture  of  the  soil  on  your  farm  ? 

3.  Secure  a  sample  of  the  soil  from  some  cultivated  hill- 
top, and  examine  it  for  its  texture,  structure  and  the 
amount  of  organic  matter.  Compare  with  another  sample 
taken  from  the  foot  of  the  hill.  Explain  the  difference  in 
color.  Dig  down  with  a  spade  and  compare  the  depth  to 
which  the  humus  extends  in  each  case. 

4.  Are  there  any  cultivated  hills  on  your  farm  so 
steep  that  erosion  is  considerable?  If  so,  how  does 
the  yield  on  the  hill  compare  with  the  lower  land?  Are 
there  any  gullies  forming?  If  so,  how  long  have  they  been 
washing  out  ?    What  is  being  done  to  stop  them  ? 


NATURE  OF  SOIL  313 

5.  Determine  what  kind  of  soil  there  is  in  your  school 
yard,  such  as  silt  loam,  clay  soil,  or  sandy  loam,  and  com- 
pare the  aggregate  surface  of  the  particles  of  a  cubic  foot  of 
it  with  the  area  of  the  school  grounds. 

6.  What  is  a  soil  auger  and  for  what  is  it  used  ?  What 
is  a  soil  survey,  and  how  and  why  is  it  made?  Consider 
the  possibility  of  joining  with  your  classmates  in  making  a 
soil  survey  and  a  soil  map  of  your  school  district. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
SOIL  FERTILITY  AND  PLANT  GROWTH 

BOTH  plants  and  animals  depend  on  the  soil  for  their  ex- 
istence. Since  animals  can  not  draw  food  immediately 
from  the  soil,  they  are  dependent  on  plants,  which  have 
the  power  to  live  chiefly  from  the  soil  elements.  Plants  may 
therefore  be  looked  upon  as  minute  factories,  each  at  work 
making  living  tissue  out  of  soil  materials.  All  human  food 
comes  either  from  the  plants  themselves,  or  from  animals 
which  feed  on  plants. 

1.    Plant  Food  and  Soil  Fertility 

The  soil  is  the  home  of  the  plant ;  there  it  must  find  the 
conditions  necessary  to  its  growth  and  development.  The 
plant  must  have  air  and  water  for  its  roots,  and  for  its  food 
all  the  elements  that  enter  into  the  tissues  in  its  growth. 
The  ability  of  the  soil  to  supply  the  elements  necessary  for 
plant  growth  is  called  its  fertility. 

Food  required  by  plants. — Agricultural  plants  re- 
quire, in  all,  ten  different  chemical  elements  for  their 
growth.     These  are: 

Carbon  "1 

Hydrogen  ^Supplied  by  air  and  water. 

Oxygen  J 

Calcium 

Magnesium  !  Supplied  by  soil. 

j^Qn  iQuantity  inexhaustible. 

Sulphur 

Nitrogen  1  Supplied  by  soil. 

Phosphorus  Quantity  limited. 

Potassium  J 

314 


SOIL  FERTILITY  315 

The  first  of  these  ten  plant  elements — carbon — is  sup- 
plied in  the  form  of  carbon  dioxide  by  the  atmosphere,  and 
hence  forms  no  part  of  the  soil's  fertility.  Hydrogen  and 
oxygen,  which  are  the  elements  that  compose  water,  are 
taken  up  by  the  plant  directly  from  the  water  of  the  soil. 
The  next  four  of  the  list,  calcium,  magnesium,  iron  and  sul- 
phur, are  found  in  practically  all  soils  in  quantities  sufficient 
for  ordinary  plant  growth.  The  fertility  of  the  soil  there- 
fore depends  chiefly  on  the  supply  of  the  last  three,  nitro- 
gen, phosphorus  and  potassium. 

Rich  or  fertile  soils  are  those  that  contain  an  abundance 
of  these  three  elements.  Every  crop  removes  some  amount 
of  each  of  the  seven  elements  supplied  by  the  soil ;  but  since 
calcium,  magnesium,  iron  and  sulphur  are  practically 
inexhaustible,  they  do  not  have  to  be  replaced  in  order  to 
maintain  the  soil's  fertility.  Nitrogen,  phosphorus  and 
potassium,  however,  must  constantly  be  returned  to  the  soil 
if  it  is  not  to  become  exhausted  and  the  crops  reduced.  As 
the  strength  of  a  chain  is  measured  by  its  weakest  link,  so 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  for  most  crops  measured  by  the 
plant  element  of  which  it  has  the  least. 

Danger  of  loss  of  fertility. — One  of  our  chief  agricul- 
tural problems  is  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  We 
must  all  live  from  its  products,  no  matter  what  our  occupa- 
tion. A  large  proportion  of  the  tillable  land  of  the  United 
States  is  now  occupied.  Our  people  must  be  fed  from' the 
land ;  there  is  no  other  source  of  supply. 

This  means  that  we  should  not  only  keep  up  the  fertil- 
ity of  the  soil,  but  actually  increase  it  as  time  goes  on.  It 
is  estimated  that  our  population  is  increasing  five  times  as 
fast  as  our  food  supply.  This  fact  explains  in  part,  at  least, 
the  high  cost  of  living. 

Much  land  has  been  rendered  almost  valueless  by  means 
of  single  cropping,  and  by  rental  of   land  on  short-term 


316  AGRICULTURE 

leases  farmers  have  robbed  the  soil  of  its  nitrogen,  phos- 
phorus and  potassium.  Farms  located  within  a  hundred 
miles  of  the  great  eastern  and  southern  markets  have  re- 
cently been  bought  for  from  ten  dollars  to  twenty  dollars 
an  acre,  when  middle  western  land  is  selling  for  one  hun- 
dred dollars  to  two  hundred  seventy-five  dollars  an  acre. 
Much  of  this  eastern  and  southern  land  was  originally  as 
good  as  the  western,  and  would  be  worth  a  great  deal  more 
per  acre  if  it  had  been  properly  farmed  to  conserve  its 
fertility  and  serve  more  fully  the  farm  as  factory  or  busi- 
ness institution. 

There  are  three  principal  methods  of  maintaining  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  or  increasing  its  fertility  when  it  has 
run  down.  These  are:  (1)  manuring,  either  with  barn- 
yard manure  or  by  plowing  under  such  plants  as  clover, 
alfalfa,  cow-peas,  or  some  other  green  crop;  (2)  using 
commercial  fertilisers ;  (3)  rotation  of  crops  and  diversi- 
fication. 

2.    Barnyard  Manure  as  a  Fertilizer 

Olie  of  the  best  evidences  of  careful  farming  and  good 
management  is  a  well  kept  and  well  used  manure  heap. 
Manure  should  no  more  be  wasted  than  any  other  farm 
product.  The  annual  waste  of  manures  in  the  United  States 
is  equal  to  our  entire  wheat  crop. 

The  value  of  barnyard  manure. — Barnyard  manure  is 
rich  in  all  three  of  the  elements  in  which  the  soil  is  likely 
to  run  short — nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potassium.  It  has 
been  estimated  by  experts  that  if  animals  are  kept  in  stalls 
or  pens  throughout  the  year,  given  a  reasonable  amount  of 
litter  for  bedding  and  all  the  manure  saved,  the  annual  value 
of  the  manure  from  each  animal  will  be:  horses  or  mules, 
twenty-seven  dollars :  cattle,  twenty  dollars ;  hogs,  eight 
dollars ;  sheep,  two  dollars.    Differently  stated,  the  value  of 


SOIL  FERTILITY 


317 


Field  showing  tlie  effecL  oi  Ic&LiUica  aiiu  piuper  treatment  of 
the  soil.  On  the  left  manure  was  used;  on  the  right,  lime- 
stone, rock-phosphate  and  manure.    . 


The  wrong  way  to  handle  barnyard  manures. 


318  AGRICULTURE 

the  manure  produced  during  the  seven  winter  months  on  a 
farm  keeping  four  horses,  twenty  cows,  fifty  sheep  and  ten 
hogs  would  be  at  least  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars.  These 
figures  are  based  on  the  cost  of  an  equal  amount  of  com- 
mercial fertilizer. 

It  is  true  that  not  all  the  fertility  taken  from  the  soil  by 
farm  crops  can  be  returned  by  using  the  manure  from  the 
feeding  of  crops,  but  the  greater  part  of  it  can.  The 
manurial  value  of  different  farm  products,  based  on  the 
cost  of  commercial  fertilizers,  is  shown  in  the  following 
tables:  (Farmers*  Bulletin  193,  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture.) 

Value  as  fertilizer  in  one  ton  of  farm  products. 

Phosphoric 
Product  Nitrogen         acid  Potash        Total 

Meadow  hay $  3.47           $  0.57           $  1.06  $  5.10 

Clover  hay 6.83  .78  1.46  9.07 

Wheat   bran 8.35  3.82  1.14  13.31 

Linseed  meal 17.87  2.25  .99  21.11 

Cottonseed  meal 23.06  3.96  1.17  28.16 

Wheat     6.38  1.11  .42  7.91 

Oats   6.21  .87  .35  7.43 

Corn     5.62       '  .83  .30  6.75 

We  see  from  this  table  that  the  farmer  who  sells 
a  ton  of  meadow  hay  loses  from  his  farm  fertilizer  value 
that  would  cost  about  five  dollars  if  purchased  in  commer- 
cial form.  If  he  sells  clover  hay,  he  loses  almost  as  much 
value  in  fertilizer  as  his  hay  brings  him.  If  he  pays  twenty 
dollars  a  ton  for  wheat  bran  he  gets  over  thirteen  dollars' 
worth  of  fertilizer,  leaving  the  feeding  cost  about  seven 
dollars. 

Of  course  it  is  evident  that  these  values  will  not  be  ob- 
tained from  the  feeding  of  farm  crops  unless  the  manure 


SOIL  FERTILITY  319 

is  carefully  saved  and  properly  used.  Not  only  has  manure 
great  chemical  value  because  of  supplying  the  elements 
needed  in  plant  growth,  but  it  has  bacteriological  value  as 
well.  For  manure  contains  an  enormous  number  of  bac- 
teria, many  of  which  aid  in  plant  growth.  Attention  has 
already  been  called  to  the  fact  that  the  addition  of  manure 
improves  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  making  it  more 
porous,  and  increasing  the  supply  of  humus. 

Preventing  loss  from  manure. — Loss  of  fertilizing 
qualities  from  manure  is  due  principally  to  two  causes:  (1) 
fermentation,  or  heating,  which  reduces  the  supply  of  nitro- 
gen ;  and  (2)  weathering,  or  leaching  from  rains,  in  which 
all  the  valuable  elements  in  liquid  form  are  lost. 

The  fermentation  of  manure  is  caused  by  two  different 
kinds  of  bacteria,  one  of  which  works  near  the  outside  of 
the  heap  where  there  is  air,  and  one  deeper  down  where  the 
air  is  excluded.  A  certain  degree  of  fermentation  is  neces- 
sary to  the  best  rotting  of  the  manure,  yet  overheating,  or 
the  "fire-fanging"  so  common  in  horse  and  sheep  manure, 
greatly  reduces  its  value. 

The  rapidity  of  fermentation  can  be  controlled  in  part 
by  packing.  If  the  heap  is  too  loosely  built,  the  air-working 
bacteria  become  active,  the  heat  grows  intense  and  nitrogen 
and  humus-making  material  are  lost.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  heap  is  packed  too  closely,  the  decomposition  is  slow 
and  the  manure  does  not  have  the  best  effect  when  spread 
on  the  soil.  Frequent  sprinkling  with  water  will  aid  in 
checking  too  rapid  fermentation. 

Great  loss  is  suffered  from  leaching  when  manure  is  ex- 
posed to  the  weather.  It  has  been  found  that  six  months' 
leaching  of  horse  manure  reduces  its  value  fully  one-half. 
The  remedy  lies  in  collecting  manure  under  cover,  so  that 
it  is  not  exposed  to  rains.  It  should  also  be  provided  with 
a  water-proof  kit  and  floor  for  the  heap,  so  that  the  liquid 

22 


320 


AGRICULTURE 


parts  which  are  fully  as  valuable  as  the  solid,  may  not  drain 
away  into  the  soil.  The  profits  from  open-yard,  badly 
leached  manure  are  so  small  as  hardly  to  pay  for  spreading 
it  on  the  field.  It  is  a  careless,  shiftless  method  of  farming 
that  allows  this  great  waste,  so  easily  prevented. 

The  application  of  manure. — For  heavy  soils,  which 
need  to  be  made  porous  by  the  addition  of  vegetable  matter, 
it  is  well  to  spread  manure  on  the  field  fresh  from  the  stalls 
without  waiting  for  it  to  rot.     It  should  not,  however,  be 


The  better  way.    Manure  carrier  and  spreader, 
allowed  to  lie  long  before  being  plowed  under,  as  much  of 
its  strength  is  lost  in  this  way.     For  all  lighter  soils,  and 
especially  such  as  have  a  tendency  to  dry  out,  the  manure 
should  be  rotted  before  being  applied. 

The  practise  of  throwing  the  manure  in  heaps  on  the 
field  and  later  spreading  it  is  not  good  practise.  For  here 
also  the  leaching  takes  place.  Some  of  the  best  elements  of 
the  manure  are  drained  into  the  ground  immediately  under 
ithe  heap,  and  some  are  lost  by  passing  off  in  the  air.     The 


SOIL  FERTILITY  321 

most  economical  and  satisfactory  method  of  spreading  man- 
ure is  by  use  of  the  manure  spreader.  This  machine  saves 
labor,  and  distributes  the  manure  more  evenly  than  is  pos- 
sible by  hand. 

The  amount  of  manure  to  be  used  will  depend  on  the 
strength  of  the  manure  and  the  condition  of  the  soil.  Five 
tons  to  the  acre  is  a  light  application,  ten  or  twelve  tons 
average,  and  twenty  tons  a  heavy  application. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Has  the  yield  of  the  principal  crops  increased  or 
decreased  in  your  region  within  the  last  ten  or  twenty 
years  ?  To  make  sure  of  this,  ask  your  father,  or  some  one 
who  has  farmed  in  the  vicinity  for  some  time. 

2.  Are  there  run-down  farms  in  the  neighborhood? 
If  so,  is  the  land  naturally  poor,  or  has  it  been  depleted  by 
single  cropping  or  poor  methods  of  farming?  Learn  the 
history  of  all  such  farms  as  accurately  as  possible,  with  ref- 
erence to  cropping,  rotation,  manuring,  and  so  on. 

3.  Based  on  the  figures  given  in  section  two,  what  was 
the  approximate  value  of  the  manure  produced  on  your 
home  farm  last  year?     (See  p.  318.) 

4.  What  care  is  given  to  saving  the  manure  on  your 
home  farm?  Is  it  collected  under  cover?  Does  it  ever 
"fire-fang"?  Is  there  a  water-tight  floor  under  the  heap? 
Should  the  liquid  manure  be  saved?  How  closely  is  the 
manure  gathered  up  from  the  yards?  What  is  the  method 
of  distributing  it  on  the  fields?  How  many  loads  are  used 
to  the  acre? 

5.  How  much  hay,  oats,  corn  and  other  farm  products 
were  sold  from  your  home  farm  last  year?  What  was  the 
approximate  manurial  value  loss  to  the  farm  ? 

3.     Green  Manuring 

As  already  suggested,   the  returning  of  the  barnyard 

manure  to  the  soil,  no  matter  how  skilfully  done,  is  not 

enough  to  maintain  the  fertility.    Our  soils  are  everywhere 

being  gradually  worn  out.     One  of  the  most   successful 


Z22 


AGRICULTURE 


methods  of   supplementing  barnyard   manure   is  by  green 
"manuring. 

Meaning  of  green  manuring. — By  green  manuring  is 
meant  plowing  under  any  green  crop  for  the  purpose  of  im- 
proving the  soil.  Green  manures  improve  the  soil  both  by 
adding  to  its  fertility  and  bettering  its  physical  condition. 
If  the  soil  is  light  and  sandy,  green  manure  prevents  it  from 
drying  out.    On  heavy  clay  soil  green  manure  has  quite  the 


Hogs  in  clover.     After  pasturing,  this  clover  will   be  turned 
under  as  green  manure. 

Opposite  effect,  because  of  admitting  the  air,  loosening  the 
soil,  and  improving  its  drainage. 

Green  manure  crops. — For  most  purposes  the  best 
green  manure  crops  are  the  nitrogen  gatherers  already  dis- 
cussed— the  clovers,  alfalfa,  cow-peas,  soy-beans,  the  vetches 
and  other  legumes.  Rye,  buckwheat,  rape  and  turnips  are 
among  other  crops  used  as  green  manures.  This  group, 
however,  lacks  the  advantage  of  gathering  nitrogen. 


SOIL  FERTILITY  323 


4.     Commercial  Fertilizers 


Although  proper  systems  of  manuring  and  rotation  of 
crops  will  insure  fertility  on  naturally  good  soil  for  many 
years,  the  land  will  finally  become  exhausted  under  such 
treatment.  This  is  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  crops  re- 
move from  the  soil  each  year  more  of  the  elements  neces- 
sary to  their  growth  than  are  returned  to  it.  The  deficiency 
must  finally  be  made  up  if  permanent  fertility  is  to  be  main- 
tained. This  is  accomplished  by  supplementing  manuring 
and  rotation  with  what  are  called  the  commercial  fertilizers. 
Increased  use  of  commercial  fertilizers. — Commercial 
fertilizers  have  long  been  used  in  a  small  way,  but  it  is  only 
recently  that  they  are  coming  to  be  employed  on  a  large 
scale.  The  farmers  of  the  United  States  are  now  paying 
out  considerably  more  than  $100,000,000  a  year  for  such 
fertilizers.  There  are  at  present  more  than  five  hundred 
manufacturers  selling  the  various  fertilizing  products. 

Since,  as  we  have  seen,  only  three  of  the  elements  neces- 
sary to  plant  production  are  likely  to  run  short,  commercial 
fertilizers  are  commonly  limited  to  these  three — nitrogen, 
phosphorus  and  potassium. 

Commercial  nitrogen  fertilizers. — Nitrogen  is  the 
most  expensive  of  the  three  essential  fertilizers.  Commer- 
cial nitrogen  fertilizer  is  sold  chiefly  in  three  different 
forms:  (1)  nitrate  of  soda  (Chile  saltpeter)  ;  (2)  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  which  is  a  by-product  of  the  manufacture  of  coke 
and  gas;  and  (3)  dried  blood,  ground  or  steamed  hone,  or 
other  animal  products  from  packing  houses. 

The  nitrogen  fertilizers  cost  from  fifteen  to  fifty  cents 
a  pound.  Instead  of  depending  on  them  the  intelligent 
farmer  will  therefore  use  every  effort  to  maintain  the  supply 
of  nitrogen  in  his  soil  through  the  nitrogen-fixing  legumes, 
occasionally  plowing  under  a  crop  of  clover,  alfalfa,  cow- 


324  AGRICULTURE 

peas,  vetches,  or  soy-beans.  Where  these  can  be  grown 
successfully,  there  will  be  little  need  to  buy  nitrogen ;  it  can 
be  obtained  from  the  seventy  million  pounds  of  free  nitro- 
gen in  the  atmosphere  above  each  acre. 

Commercial  phosphorus  fertilizers. — Phosphorus  fer- 
tilizers are  supplied  commercially  in  the  form  (1)  of  the 
bones  of  animals  killed  at  the  slaughter-houses ;  (2)  of  min- 
eral deposits  in  phosphate  rock,  immense  beds  of  which  are 
found  in  Tennessee,  South  Carolina,  Florida,  Wyoming, 
Utah,  Idaho  and  Montana;  and  (3)  of  slag  from  the  fur- 
naces where  certain  ores  containing  phosphorus  are  smelted. 

Bone  phosphate  is  sold  either  as  ground  bone,  which  is 
raw  bone  ground  up;  or  bone  meal,  which  is  made  by  grind- 
ing after  the  bones  have  been  steamed  under  high  pressure 
to  remove  the  fats  and  oils. 

Mineral  phosphate  is  sold  in  two  forms,  (1)  that  first 
treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  (2)  the  natural  rock  finely 
ground.  The  first  form  has  the  advantage  of  being  more 
immediately  available  for  plant  use.  The  second  form  is 
considerably  less  expensive  and,  when  mixed  with  organic 
matter  like  some  form  of  manure,  proves  equally  as  valu- 
able as  the  more  expensive  compound. 

Corajnercial  potassium  fertilizers. — Potassium  fertil- 
izers are  available  in  several  commercial  forms,  none  of 
which  is  produced  in  large  quantity  in  this  country.  The 
potash  mines  of  Germany  have  been  the  chief  source  of 
supply. 

The  crude  potash  may  be  used  on  the  soil  directly  as 
mined,  or  it  may  be  made  into  more  concentrated  form. 
It  is  sold  commercially  as  a  fertilizer  (1)  as  muriate  of  pot- 
ash, (2)  as  saltpeter  of  potash,  and  (3)  as  kainite.  Since 
this  product  has  to  be  imported  it  is  naturally  more  expen- 
sive than  if  produced  at  home.     From  one  hundred  to  two 


SOIL  FERTILITY  325 

hundred  pounds  to  the  acre,  applied  at  intervals  of  from 
one  to  three  years,  will,  however,  usually  prove  sufficient  to 
keep  up  the  supply. 

The  application  of.  cominercial  fertilizers. — Because 
commercial  fertilizers  are  so  expensive,  and  also  for  the 
reason  that  the  application  of  a  fertilizer  when  it  is  not 
needed  may  do  positive  harm,  the  advice  of  your  county 
agricultural  agent  or  some  other  agricultural  leader  of  the 
state  should  be  sought  before  purchasing.  An  agriculturist, 
after  a  survey  of  your  soil,  may  be  able  not  only  to  suggest 
the  best  kind  for  local  needs,  but  also  the  amount  that  should 
be  used. 

5.    The  Use  of  Lime  on  Soils 

Lime  can  hardly  be  called  a  fertilizer,  since  it  does  not 
contain  any  of  the  elements  in  which  the  soil  is  generally 
lacking.  Yet  because  of  its  action  on  certain  other  elements 
of  the  soil  it  is  necessary  to  plant  production.  When  lime 
does  not  already  exist  in  the  soil  it  must  be  added  in  com- 
mercial form  if  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  to  be  maintained. 
The  purpose  of  lime  is  to  cure  the  soil  of  its  acid  condition. 

Acid  soils. — All  soils  have  a  tendency  to  become  sour, 
or  acid.  This  acidity  comes  about  in  several  different  ways : 
in  the  decay  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil,  certain  acids  are 
produced;  hence  the  soils  rich  in  humus  are  likely  to  be 
acid.  Plant  roots  give  off  acid  in  the  process  of  their 
growth,  and  this  acid  remains  in  the  soil.  The  action  of 
the  nitrifying  bacteria  also  adds  to  the  acidity  of  the  soil. 
Heavy,  non-porous  clay  soils  which  do  not  allow  the  en- 
trance of  fresh  air  are  usually  sour. 

The  degree  of  acidity  of  soils  can  be  judged  (1)  by  the 
refusal  of  certain  plants  to  grow  in  them ;  for  example,  the 
legumes  will  not  thrive  in  acid  soils,  and  the  failure  of  clover 
or  alfalfa  to  do  well  should  arouse  a  suspicion  of  too  much 


326  AGRICULTURE 

acid.  (2)  The  presence  of  such  weeds  as  sheep-sorrel, 
horsetail  rush,  corn  spurry,  and  wood  horsetail  indicate 
acid.  (3)  Blue  litmus  paper  turns  red  when  placed  in  con- 
tact with  a  soil  containing  acid.  (4)  Acidic  test.  (See 
Wisconsin  Bulletin  No.  249  for  new  method.) 

Liming  acid  soils. — Lime  is  a  certain  remedy  for  acid 
soils.  In  some  regions,  especially  where  limestone  abounds, 
the  natural  supply  of  lime  in  the  soil  is  sufficient  to  overcome 
the  surplus  acid.  In  other  regions,  lime  needs  to  be  applied 
in  commercial  form.  This  is  the  only  cure  for  acid  soil 
within  reach  of  the  farmer. 

Nearly  all  prairie  soil  is  in  some  degree  acid,  especially 
on  slopes  where  leaching  of  the  soil  has  carried  away  the 
original  deposits  of  lime,  and  wherever  large  supplies  of 
humus  have  formed  from  the  decay  of  organic  matter. 
Thousands  of  acres  of  acid  land  would  well  repay  the  cost 
of  liming  by  increased  yields.  Many  farmers  now  look  on 
liming  as  a  regular  and  necessary  requirement.  Of  course 
lime  should  not  be  applied  unless  needed,  but  the  tests  are 
so  simple  that  this  is  easily  determined. 

Forms  of  lime  used. — Lime  is  available  for  applica- 
tion to  the  soil  in  several  forms:  (1)  Quicklime,  or  lime 
ready  for  use  in  making  plaster,  when  finely  ground  may  be 
applied  at  the  rate  of  about  one  ton  to  the  acre.  (2)  Air- 
slacked  lime,  or  ordinary  lime  that  has  been  exposed  to  the 
air,  is  an  excellent  form,  and  may  be  applied  at  the  rate 
of  two  or  more  tons  to  the  acre.  (3)  Ground  or  finely 
crushed  limestone  direct  from  the  quarries  is  widely  used 
in  regions  where  it  is  easily  obtainable.  From  one  to  two 
tons  to  the  acre  will  usually  correct  the  acidity. 

The  form  of  lime  to  be  used  will  depend  chiefly  on  which 
is  most  easily  available  and  cheapest.  The  amount  required 
is  determined  by  the  degree  of  acidity  in  the  soil. 


SOIL  FERTILITY  327 

6.     Crop  Rotation  and  Fertility 

The  rotation  of  crops  can  not  properly  be  said  to  in- 
crease the  fertility  of  the  soil.  For  every  crop  removes 
from  the  soil  some  quantity  of  each  of  the  elements  required 
for  plant  growth.  Certain  very  definite  advantages  come 
from  rotation,  however,  which  at  least  save  the  rapid  soil 
exhaustion  resulting  from  growing  one  crop  continuously. 
Rotation  also  brings  increased  yields.  In  this  sense  a  proper 
rotation  may  have  the  same  effect  as  the  application  of  a 
fertilizer,  though  it  can  never  serve  as  a  substitute. 

What  is  meant  by  rotation  of  crops.— By  rotation  of 
crops  is  meant  a  regular  order  followed  for  a  period  of  years, 
and  alternating  on  different  fields.  If  this  order  is  hit-and- 
miss,  or  the  result  of  whim  or  chance,  it  can  not  be  called  a 
rotation.  Rotations  may  be  planned  on  a  two-year,  three- 
year,  four-year,  or  any  other  cycle. 

What  is  accomplished  by  rotation. — Rotation  of 
crops  improves  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil.  Grasses 
and  legumes  have  a  larger  supply  of  roots  than  most  cereals, 
and  so  increase  the  organic  matter.  Different  crops  send 
their  roots  to  different  depths,  and  so  use  new  portions  of 
the  soil.  The  cultivation  of  inter-tilled  crops  clears  the  soil 
of  weeds,  and  opens  it  up  to  air  and  moisture. 

Rotation  also  aids  in  destroying  insects  and  other  ene- 
mies of  plants,  as  we  have  already  seen.  The  pests  that 
attack  one  kind  of  crop  die  out  when  another  crop  is  raised 
on  the  field.  The  growing  of  the  nitrogen-gathering  legumes 
on  every  part  of  the  farm  in  succession  is  allowed  by  rota- 
tion, thus  saving  the  necessity  of  buying  commercial  nitro- 
gen fertilizers. 

The  crops  to  use  in  a  rotation. — It  is  evident  that  no 
universal  standard  rotation  can  be  prescribed.  Both  the  par- 
ticular crops  and  the  order  must  be  decided  by  local  con- 


328 


AGRICULTURE 


ditions  and  requirements.  The  rotation  is  usually  based  on 
some  one  principal  crop,  such  as  corn,  cotton,  potatoes  or 
wheat,  the  other  crops  being  arranged  to  favor  these.  Where 
cotton  or  tobacco  is  the  main  crop,  the  following  five-year 
rotation  is  considered  a  good  one :  First  year,  cotton  or  to- 
bacco; second  year,  corn  and  crimson  clover;  third  year, 
crimson  clover;  fourth  year,  small  grains;  fifth  year,  cow- 
peas  or  soy-beans. 

A  good  five-year  rotation  to  include  trucking  and  fruit 
growing  may  be  as  follows:  First  year,  cotton  or  wheat 
and  cow-peas ;  second  year,  early  potatoes  and  beans ;  third 
year,  early  potatoes  and  beans  or  other  vegetables;  and 
strawberries  for  the  two  succeeding  years. 

The  table  for  the  five-year  rotation,  showing  distribu- 
tion by  fields,  is  as  follows : 


Year 


Field    A      Field   B       Field   C       Field    D     Field  E 


First 


Third 


Fourth 


Fifth 


Crimson 
Clover 


c^^^„j      Small 
Second       r- 

Grams 


Cow-peas 

or 

Soy-beans 

Cotton  or 
Tobacco 

Corn  and 

Crimson 

Clover 


Small  Cow-peas   Cotton  or 

Grains         or  Tobacco 

Soy-beans 
Cow-peas  Corn  and 

or  Cotton   or  Crimson 

Soy-beans  Tobacco     Clover 

Cotton  or  ^°.^"   ^"^  Crimson 
Tobacco      Crimson     ^^^^^^ 
Clover 


Corn   and 

Crimson 

Clover 

Crimson 
Clover 


Crimson 
Clover 


Small 
Grains 


Small 
Grains 


Cow-peas 

or 

Soy-beans 

Cotton  or 
Tobacco 

Corn  and 

Crimson 

Clover 

Crimson 
Clover 


Cow-peas   g^^^ 
Soy-beans  ^^^^"^ 


Note  that  the  above  system  of  rotation  provides  for 
both  corn  and  cotton  each  year,  but  never  in  the  same 
field  for  two  or  more  successive  years.    It  also  provides  for 


SOIL  FERTILITY  329 

forage  and  cover  crops  and  small  grains  for  necessary  feed 
for  farm  animals. 

Principles  of  rotation. — In  the  southern  states  as  a 
rule  it  will  be  found  much  more  profitable  to  grow  a  crop  of 
cotton  or  tobacco  once  every  three,  four  or  five  years  on  the 
same  field  than  every  year.  There  are  four  kinds  of  crops 
that  should  be  considered  in  every  rotation.  First,  a  ready- 
money  crop,  and  upon  this  crop  the  rotation  should  be 
based.  In  the  South  these  crops  are  usually  cotton  or  to- 
bacco, sometimes  wheat.  Second,  there  should  always  be 
a  fodder  crop  available  for  necessary  feeding  of  farm  ani- 
mals. Third,  there  should  be  at  least  one  legume  in  the 
rotation  in  order  to  furnish  humus  for  plant  growth. 
Fourth,  in  every  rotation  there  should  be  a  plan  for  the 
growing  of  a  winter  cover  crop  to  prevent  the  erosion  and 
leaching  of  the  soils.  The  latter  is  especially  important  in 
the  southern  states. 

In  working  out  a  system  of  rotation  no  plan  will  be  safe 
to  follow  for  all  states  or  all  districts.  It  is  therefore  quite 
important  that  the  farmer  should  consult  the  local  experi- 
ment station  and  college  of  agriculture  with  reference  to 
a  suitable  system  of  rotation.  In  general,  the  following 
principals  of  rotation  should  be  carefully  considered: 

Rotation  Rules. — 1.  Rotate  the  crop  so  as  to  give  not 
less  than  one  money  market  crop  every  year.  When 
plenty  of  land  is  available,  two  or  more  money  crops 
should  be  grown. 

2.  Rotate  crops  so  as  to  have  as  much  green  feed  as 
possible  for  the  entire  year. 

3.  Rotate  the  crop  so  as  to  make  use  for  each  suc- 
ceeding year  of  the  remains  or  residue  of  former  crops, 
such  as  manures  and  other  fertilizers. 

4.  Rotate  the  crops  so  as  to  secure  as  much  nitrogen 
as  possible  from  the  air.  Clover,  alfalfa,  cow-peas  and 
other  legumes  will  do  this. 


330  AGRICULTURE 

5.  Rotate  the  crops  so  as  to  defeat  or  check  the  de- 
velopment of  insect  pests  and  plant  diseases.  Lack  of 
this  has  been  the  chief  cause  of  the  rapid  advance  of  the 
Mexican  boll  weevil  in  cotton  territory. 

6.  Rotate  the  crops  so  as  to  make  use  of  all  tillable 
land  every  season. 

7.  Rotate  the  crops  so  as  to  secure  an  even  distribu- 
tion of  labor  for  both  man  and  beast  during  the  entire  year. 

8.  In  southern  territory  rotate  crops  so  as  to  pro- 
vide for  winter  forage  for  live  stock  and  cover  crops  to 
prevent  leaching  and  erosion. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  What  commercial  fertilizers  are  used  in  your  re- 
gion? In  what  form*  is  the  fertilizer  applied?  What  is 
the  quantity  used  per  acre?  The  cost?  To  what  extent 
is  green  manuring  employed  ?  What  crops  are  chiefly  used  ? 
What  is  meant  by  a  *'5-8-7"  commercial  fertilizer? 

2.  To  make  the  litmus-paper  test  for  acid  in  soils,  take 
a  small  piece  of  blue  litmus  paper  and  place  it  between 
pieces  of  thoroughly  dampened  soil,  pressing  the  soil  close 
and  leaving  it  in  contact  with  the  paper  for  five  minutes. 
If  the  paper  turns  red,  the  soil  is  acid  and  needs  lime. 
Secure  samples  of  soil  taken  at  a  depth  of  six  inches  from 
several  different  parts  of  your  farm,  including  both  upland 
and  lowland  areas,  and  make  the  litmus-paper  test. 

3.  Draw  a  diagram  of  your  home  farm  showing  the 
different  fields.  Now  work  out  several  different  crop  rota- 
tions based  on  your  principal  crop,  and  taking  into  account 
the  necessity  for  growing  some  legume  for  improving  the 
soil.  Compare  with  the  rotations  suggested  by  other  mem- 
bers of  the  class. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
SOIL  MOISTURE 

WATER  is  as  necessary  to  the  growth  of  plants  as  fer- 
tile soil.  All  the  food  taken  by  plants  from  the  soil 
must  first  be  dissolved  in  water.  The  tiny  root-tips  suck 
in  this  food-laden  water  which  circulates  to  every  part  of 
the  plant,  producing  its  growth. 

The  amount  of  water  required  by  a  growing  crop  is  enor- 
mous. For  every  pound  of  dry  matter  made  by  the  plant, 
from  three  hundred  to  eight  hundred  pounds  of  water  must 
be  drawn  in  by  its  roots  and  circulate  through  it.  To  pro- 
duce a  ton  of  dry  hay  on  an  acre  of  ground  demands  that 
approximately  five  hundred  tons  of  water  be  pumped  by 
the  grass  stalks  from  the  soil.  When  the  soil  lacks  water, 
plants  are  cut  off  from  both  necessary  food  and  drink. 

1.     Forms  of  Soil  Water 

Gravitational  water. — Soil  that  is  thoroughly  satur- 
ated contains  a  certain  amount  of  free  water  that  will 
drain  off  if  there  is  some  outlet.  That  is,  the  force  of  grav- 
ity pulls  it  down  through  the  soil ;  hence  its  name,  free,  or 
gravitational  water. 

To  watch  how  this  works,  place  some  soil  in  a  funnel 
closed  with  a  stopper.  Pour  water  over  the  soil  until  it  is 
completely  soaked.  Then  remove  the  stopper  and  allow 
what  will  of  the  water  to  drain  off.  All  the  water  that  thus 
escapes  is  free,  or  gravitational  water. 

331 


332  AGRICULTURE 

Plants  can  not  use  gravitational  water  for  their  supply. 
This  is  to  say  that  they  can  not  grow  in  a  soaked  soil.  "Wa- 
ter-logged" soil  excludes  air  from  the  roots,  and  the  plants 
soon  suffer  for  want  of  oxygen.  Standing  water  also  keeps 
the  roots  of  most  plants  too  cold  for  good  growth.  Hence 
the  necessity  of  conditions  that  will  allow  the  soil  to  drain 
readily  after  rains,  so  that  the  free  water  may  escape. 

Capillary  water. — Soils  will  not  drain  entirely  dry. 
After  your  funnel  of  earth  has  lost  all  the  water  that  will 
run  from  it,  it  is  still  wet.  This  wetness  is  caused  by  what 
is  called  capillary  water. 

Capillary  water  exists  in  the  form  of  thin  films  around 
the  soil  particles  and  in  the  spaces  between  them,  as  de- 
scribed in  an  earlier  chapter.  Each  separate  particle  is  sur- 
rounded by  its  own  film,  while  larger  films  bind  the  separate 
particles  together  in  granules.  Since  the  particles  of  a  given 
weight  of  soil  of  fine  texture  present  a  larger  surface  area 
than  the  particles  of  a  soil  of  coarse  texture,  it  is  evident 
that  the  finer  the  soil  the  greater  the  amount  of  capillary 
water  required  to  make  up  the  films. 

Plant  growth  and  capillary  water. — It  is  the  capillary 
water  of  the  soil  that  plants  use  in  their  growth.  Their 
root  tips  come  in  contact  with  the  water  films  surrounding 
the  soil  particles  and  drink  this  water  in.  One  of  the  first 
requisites  of  soil  to  produce  a  good  crop,  therefore,  is  its 
ability  to  act  as  a  reservoir  for  a  large  amount  of  capillary 
water. 

2.     Capacity  of  Soils  of  Capillary  Water 

Soils  differ  greatly  in  their  capacity  for  capillary  water. 
This  can  easily  be  shown  by  a  simple  experiment.  Bake  a 
pint  of  sand  and  a  pint  of  clay  until  all  the  water  is  dried 
out;  then  place  the  samples  in  separate  funnels  over  the 


SOIL  MOISTURE  333 

lower  ends  of  which  are  tied  pieces  of  cheese  cloth.  Now 
slowly  pour  water  from  a  graduate  over  each  soil  until  the 
water  begins  to  drip  from  the  bottom  of  the  funnel.  Note 
carefully  how  much  water  was  required  in  each  case. 

Soil  texture  and  capillary  water. — Because  of  the 
fineness  of  their  texture,  clay  and  silt  soils  have  much 
greater  capacity  for  capillary  water  than  sandy  or  gravelly 
soils.  Under  average  field  conditions  the  difference  in  the 
amount  of  capillary  water  held  in  the  first  two  feet  of  fully 
saturated  soil  is  about  as  follows: 

Sandy  loam  soil  will  hold 5      inches  of  water 

Clay  loam  soil  will  hold 7^       " 

Muck  soil  will  hold 12^      "  "        " 

This  is  to  say  that  it  would  require  a  sheet  of  water  five 
inches  deep  to  supply  the  capillary  water  for  the  first  two 
feet  of  saturated  sandy  soil ;  a  sheet  of  water  seven  and  one- 
half  inches  deep  for  the  first  two  feet  of  saturated  clay  soil ; 
and  a  sheet  twelve  and  one-half  inches  deep  for  the  first 
two  feet  of  saturated  muck  soil. 

Drawing  ground  water  by  capillarity. — A  very  simple 
experiment  will  test  the  capacity  of  different  soils  for  draw- 
ing capillary  water  from  below.  Take  four  glass  tubes  at 
least  one  inch  in  diameter  and  from  fifteen  to  twenty  inches 
long,  or  four  chimneys  from  student-lamps,  and  arrange 
them  suspended  in  a  rack.  Tie  over  the  lower  end  of  each  a 
piece  of  cheese-cloth.  Fill  the  tubes  with  soils  of  different 
texture,  from  fine  clay  to  coarse  sand.  Place  a  pan  beneath 
the  tubes,  and  pour  water  into  it  until  the  water  stands  half 
an  inch  above  the  bottom  of  the  tubes.  Now  watch  the  wa- 
ter rise  in  the  different  soils.  Keep  accurate  track  of  the 
time  required,  and  of  the  height  reached  in  each.  What 
are  your  conclusions  ? 

Humus   and  capillary  water. — The   capacity   of  any 


334  AGRICULTURE 

soil  for  holding  capillary  water  is  greatly  increased  by  the 
presence  of  decaying  organic  matter.  It  has'  been  care- 
fully estimated  that  one  ton  of  humus  will  absorb  two  tons 
of  water  and  give  it  up  as  needed  by  growing  plants. 

3.    Tillage  and  Soil  Water 

One  of  the  chief  problems  of  agriculture  is  to  conserve 
the  capillary  water  of  the  soil  and  make  it  available  for 
plant  growth.  Capillary  water  is  removed  from  the  soil 
in  two  ways,  (1)  by  evaporation,  and  (2)  by  being  absorbed 
by  the  roots  of  growing  plants.  What  is  lost  by  evapora- 
tion is  wasted  so  far  as  crops  are  concerned. 

Tillage  for  conserving  capillary  moisture. — All  loos- 
ening of  the  soil  increases  its  absorbing  power,  and  thus 
causes  rain  to  soak  into  the  ground  instead  of  running  off 
along  the  top.  The  deeper  the  plowing  the  greater  this  ef- 
fect will  be.  Fall  plowing,  by  opening  the  soil  for  the  ab- 
sorption of  the  winter  snows,  adds  to  the  amount  of  soil 
water. 

The  most  effective  tillage  for  conserving  capillary  water, 
however,  is  the  frequent  cultivation  during  the  growing  sea- 
son which  results  in  a  fine  soil  mulch  over  the  surface.  To 
see  the  truth  of  this,  make  the  following  experiment : 

Effect  of  a  soil  mulch. — Fill  two  glasses  nearly  full 
of  the  same  soil ;  if  the  soil  is  dry,  add  an  equal  amount  of 
water  to  each,  making  the  soil  fairly  damp,  but  not  soaked ; 
pack  them  equally  by  striking  the  glass  gently  down  on  the 
table.  Now  put  a  half  inch  of  fine,  dry  road  dust  over  the 
top  of  one,  leaving  the  other  without  covering.  Set  the  twa 
glasses  side  by  side,  and  note  the  time  it  requires  for  each 
to  dry  out  by  losing  its  capillary  water  through  evapora- 
tion. 

The  fine  mulch  made  by  frequent  harrowings  and  culti- 


SOIL  MOISTURE 


335 


The  right  kind  of  mulch  for 
moisture  conservation  is 
granular — that  is,  the  dirt 
should  not  be  pulverized  too 
finely. 


The  wrong  kind  of  mulch.  The 
ground  is  almost  dust.  Such 
mulch  blows  away  easily. 


The  granular  mulch  rained  up- 
on and  left  standing  for  a 
number  of  days.  Observe 
that  the  ground  is  cracking 
.  and  that  moisture  is  escaping 
through  these  cracks.  The 
crust  can  be  easily  broken. 


Dust  mulch  rained  upon  and 
left  standing  in  the  hot  sun. 
Note  that  the  crust  has 
cracked,  and  that  the  moist- 
ure is  escaping  very  rapidly. 
It  is  impossible  to  work  up 
this  seed  bed  properly. 


336  AGRICULTURE 

vatings  has  precisely  the  same  effect  on  our  fields.  In  dry 
regions  summer  fallowing  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  col- 
lecting a  supply  of  capillary  water.  Whatever  rain  falls  is 
saved  by  keeping  the  surface  covered  with  a  fine  soil  mulch, 
and  what  moisture  is  drawn  up  toward  the  surface  from  the 
ground  water  by  capillary  attraction  is  also  conserved  for 
the  crop  that  is  to  follow. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Is  there  any  ground  on  your  home  farm  too  wet 
or  marshy  for  cropping  successfully?  If  so,  measure  care- 
fully the  amount  of  land  in  such  areas.  Do  any  patches 
break  the  regularity  of  cultivated  fields?  How  much  land 
is  practically  wasted  as  far  as  any  return  in  crops  is  con- 
cerned ? 

2.  What  is  the  value  of  your  farm  per  acre  ?  What  is 
its  rental  value  per  acre  ?  What  is  the  value  of  all  the  land 
lost  by  being  too  wet  to  cultivate?  What  is  its  rental 
value?  Have  you  any  land  under  cultivation  that  is  too 
wet  at  times  to  produce  good  crops?  What  do  you  esti- 
mate is  the  loss? 

3.  Draw  a  diagram  of  any  pieces  of  marsh  land  on  your 
home  farm,  showing  the  outlet  for  drainage  and  the  distance 
the  drain  would  have  to  run  in  each  case.  Are  there  any 
places  where  a  shallow  run  would  serve?  Have  you  any 
low  ground  subject  to  rain  floods  from  higher  land? 
If  so,  could  a  shallow  ditch  be  made  to  serve  as  an  eaves- 
trough  to  save  the  flooding? 

4.    Soil  Drainage 

Necessary  as  water  is  to  plants,  however,  much  of  our 
soil  needs  drainage  to  rid  it  of  an  oversupply  of  free  or 
gravitational  water.  There  are  some  eighty  million  acres  of 
marsh  lands  in  the  United  States.  The  greater  part  of  this 
waste  territory  would  make  excellent  farm  land  if  properly 
drained. 


SOIL  MOISTURE 


ZZ7 


Undisked  stubble  plowed.  Ob- 
serve that  the  ground  is 
turned  up  in  lumps;  that 
there  are  open  spaces  at  the 
bottom  of  the  furrow  which 
prevent  the  close  compact- 
ness of  the  lower  portion  of 
the  turned  furrow  with  the 
soil  beneath. 


Disked  stubble  plowed.  The 
mulch  formed  by  the  disk 
harrow  fills  up  the  open 
spaces  at  the  bottom  of  the 
furrow,  thereby  forming  a 
close  connection  with  the  sub- 
surface. 


H 

This  illustration  represents  the 
field  above  treated  with  a 
pegtooth  harrow  after  plow- 
ing. The  surface  is  in  com- 
paratively good  condition,  but 
the  bottom  is  not  compact. 


iiill 


This  illustration  represents  the 
field  above  harrowed  with  a 
pegtooth  harrow.  The  air 
spaces  are  still  at  the  bottom 
of  the  furrow. 


338  AGRICULTURE 

But  perhaps  fully  as  important  is  the  occasional  small 
piece  of  wet  ground  on  farms  now  under  tillage.  In  cer- 
tain regions  there  is  hardly  a  farm  that  does  not  have  its 
low  marshy  places  where  crops  drown  out  in  wet  times,  or 
which  are  allowed  to  lie  without  cultivation.  In  nearly  all 
cases  this  land  could  be  made  the  equal  of  the  remainder 
of  the  farm  by  drainage  and  proper  management. 

Surface  drainage. — Surface  drainage  is  never  so 
thorough  and  satisfactory  as  underdrainage,  yet  it  will  often 
improve  conditions  enough  to  pay.  By  surface  drainage 
is  meant  the  opening  of  runs  or  ditches  to  allow  the  escape 
of  surface  water  that  otherwise  would  stand  on  the  soU, 
flood  over  lower  ground,  or  percolate  down  to  add  to  the 
gravitational  water  already  in  the  subsoil. 

Low  ground  is  sometimes  plowed  in  narrow  strips,  the 
frequent  dead  furrows  allowing  surface  drainage.  If  there 
is  a  slight  slope  and  the  furrows  can  open  freely  at  the  end, 
this  will  prove  of  great  benefit.  Where  such  simple  drain- 
age will  not  serve,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  construct 
open  ditches,  though  these  should  give  way  to  underdrain- 
age when  this  is  possible.  For  underdrainage  is  under  most 
conditions  a  more  successful  way  of  removing  the  water, 
and  it  saves  much  loss  of  ground  and  the  cutting  up  of 
fields. 

Making  surface  drains. — Surface  runs  which  are  only 
required  to  remove  surplus  water  during  flood  seasons  may 
be  made  one  and  one-half  feet  deep  and  ten  feet  wide  at  the 
top  at  a  cost  of  about  twenty-five  cents  a  rod,  using  a  road 
grader  for  the  excavating.  Such  shallow  runs  are  often 
seeded,  and  the  edges  leveled  off  and  cultivated,  thus  avoid- 
ing waste  of  land.  Open  ditches  of  this  kind  are  often  de- 
sirable in  connection  with  underdrainage.     They  also  serve 


SOIL  MOISTURE  339 

as  eaves-troughs  to  prevent  flood  water  of  surrounding 
uplands  from  entering  lower  areas. 

Deeper  ditches  are  required  when  the  main  drain  is  to 
receive  the  discharge  of  lateral  drains.  The  size  and  depth 
will  depend  on  the  territory  to  be  drained,  and  the  fall  of 
the  ditch.  In  the  Middle  West,  open  ditches,  many  of  them 
miles  in  length,  are  being  constructed,  each  farm  served 
paying  its  share  of  the  expense.  Open  lateral  ditches  or 
underground  tile  then  empty  into  this  main  drain.  Under 
average  conditions,  the  cost  of  opening  a  ditch  seven  feet 
deep  and  twenty  feet  wide  at  the  top  by  means  of  a  dredgiilg 
machine  is  about  one  thousand  dollars  a  mile. 

Underdrainage. — Underdrainage  has  the  advantage 
of  carrying  off  the  ground  water  to  any  desired  depth. 
This  is  an  important  matter  in  the  growth  of  most  crops. 
For  where  the  level  of  ground  water  is  near  the  surface, 
plants  will  not  strike  their  roots  deep  in  the  soil,  but  spread 
them  out  near  the  top.  This  leaves  the  crop  at  the  mercy 
of  drought  later  in  the  season,  when  the  upper  layers  of 
soil  dry  out.  Deep  rooting  is  also  necessary  to  make  full 
use  of  the  plant  food  of  the  soil. 

Tile  underdrains.^Burnt  clay  and  cement  are  the 
materials  chiefly  used  for  underdrains  in  most  regions. 
These  materials  are  made  into  cylinders  from  three  to  thir- 
ty-six inches  in  diameter,  and  from  twelve  to  thirty  inches 
in  length.  For  lateral  drains,  tiles  four  or  five  inches  in 
diameter  are  most  used.  The  main  outlet  drain  usually 
requires  tiles  from  eight  to  twelve  inches. 

Placing  the  drains. — Moderately  heavy  clay  soils  re- 
quire laterals  about  four  rods  apart  to  carry  off  the  rainfall. 
If  the  subsoil  is  sandy,  the  laterals  may  be  as  much  as  eight 
rods  apart.  Sometimes  the  marshiness  of  a  piece  of  ground 
is  caused  by  seepage  leading  to  it  from  some  higher  area. 


340  AGRICULTURE 

In  this  case,  there  should  be  a  Hne  of  tile  at  the  edge  of  the 
lower  ground  to  receive  the  seepage. 

Several  lines  of  parallel  drains  are  more  economical  than 
one  central  line  into  v^hich  diagonal  laterals  run.  This  is 
because  with  parallel  drains  there  is  less  area  receiving 
double  drainage.  Several  parallel  lines  can  often  be  car- 
ried into  one  line  of  larger  tile,  and  all  discharge  through 
the  same  outlet,  thus  saving  trouble  and  expense. 

Depth  of  tile. — Tile  should  be  placed  deep  enough 
that  the  level  of  ground  water  will  not  stand  too  near 
the  surface,  and  yet  not  too  deep  to  carry  oif  the  gravita- 
tional water  without  allowing  it  to  stay  too  long  in  the 
soil.  In  clay  subsoil  the  most  common  depth  is  about  three 
feet.  In  partially  sandy  subsoils,  the  depth  may  be  four  feet. 
All  tile  meant  to  catch  seepage  should  be  as  deep  as  four  feet. 

Gradient,  or  fall. — The  larger  tiles  may  be  laid  with 
a  fall  of  an  inch  to  one  hundred  feet.  Laterals  should  have 
from  two  to  three  times  this  much  fall.  Lines  for  catching 
seepage  should  have  still  greater  slope;  as  much  as  five 
inches  to  one  hundred  feet,  if  this  is  possible. 

Cost  of  tiling. — The  cost  of  tiling  will,  of  course,  vary 
with  the  size  of  tile  used,  the  depth  it  is  laid,  and  the 
character  of  the  soil.  The  average  cost  under  normal  con- 
ditions is  about  as  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Depth  tile  is  laid 


Size  of  tile  3  feet  4  feet  5  feet  6  feet 


4  inch  $  .30 

5  inch  .35 

6  inch  .40 

8  inch  .45 

10  inch  .50 

12  inch  .55 


$  .50 

$  .80 

$1.25 

.55 

.85 

1.30 

.60 

.90 

1.38 

.65 

.95 

1.40 

.70 

1.00 

1.45 

.75 

1.05 

1.50 

SOIL  MOISTURE  341 


Topics  for  Investigation 


1.  Taking  the  cost  of  the  drainage  as  shown  in  the 
table,  figure  what  it  would  cost  to  tile  out  wet  places  on 
your  farm,  using  four-inch  tile  for  parallels  laid  four  rods 
apart.  The  parallels  are  to  connect  across  the  lower  end 
with  a  six-inch  line,  and  this  is  to  empty  into  the  nearest 
available  ditch  or  stream.  Would  it  pay  to  put  in  tile  on 
your  home  farm? 

2.  By  digging  down  in  several  different  places  on  your 
farm,  see  whether  you  can  discover  the  level  of  ground 
water.  Have  you  ever  seen  water  gather  in  the  bottom  of 
a  post  hole?     What  does  this  indicate? 

3.  Study  the  texture  of  the  soil  in  your  school  yard, 
and  compute  the  approximate  weight  of  the. capillary  water 
contained  in  the  first  two  feet  of  its  depth  when  the  soil  is 
well  saturated. 

4.  Show  how  you  can  make  a  soil  survey  of  your 
father's  farm  or  home  garden  by  the  use  of  the  soil  auger 
and  a  diagram  indicating  the  top  soil,  subsoil,  elevations, 
lowlands,  and  drainage  possibilities. 

5.     Soil  Demonstrations 

1.  Show  how  to  determine  the  kind  and  depth  of  soil 
of  any  particular  spot. 

2.  Show  how  to  test  the  soil  for  acidity.  Show  two 
methods  if  possible. 

3.  By  the  use  of  a  glass  of  muddy  water  and  the 
application  of  a  little  lime,  show  the  value  of  lime  to  soils. 

4.  Demonstrate  the  value  of  shallow  cultivation  for  the 
conservation  of  moisture  in  soils  by  the  use  of  loaf-sugar 
and  powdered  sugar,  a  solid  or  well-packed  piece  of  earth 
and  a  dust  mulch  placed  on  top.  Apply  water  to  each  at 
the  bottom. 

5.  Demonstrate  how  to  test  the  capillarity  of  soils. 

6.  Demonstrate  by  the  use  of  various  types  of  soil  and 
the  same  kind  of  seed  the  relations  of  types  of  soil  to  the 
germination  of  seed  and  its  subsequent  plant  growth. 


342  AGRICULTURE 

7.  Show  by  demonstration  how  legumes  tend  to  con- 
serve the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

8.  Show  by  the  use  of  different  types  of  soil  their  re- 
spective merits  in  the  conservation  of  moisture. 

6.     Soil  Play  Contests 

1.  Soil  type  naming  contest. 

2.  Soil  analysis  contest. 

3.  Soil  guessing  games. 

4.  Soil  sample  getting  contest. 

5.  Stone  naming  contest,  in  which  samples  of  various 
types  of  native  stones  are  placed  before  the  contestants. 
The  one  who  can  name  the  largest  number  in  a  given  time 
is  to  be  judged  the  winner. 

7.     Soil  Fertility  Club  Projects 

The  object  of  this  club  project  is  to  organize  the  boys 
and  girls  into  a  cooperative  group  for  the  purpose  of  build- 
ing up  the  soil  fertility  of  a  community.  The  pupils  should 
pledge  themselves  to  manage  one  or  more  acres  of  land  dur- 
ing the  season  with  the  idea  of  not  only  making  a  net  profit 
on  the  investment  for  the  season,  but  of  starting  and  carry- 
ing on  a  three-  to  five-year  rotation  of  crops  with  a  dis- 
tinct plan  of  growing  leguminous  crops  such  as  clover, 
alfalfa,  cow-peas,  etc. 

Club  membership. — This  particular  club  work  should 
be  maintained  for  the  members  of  the  agricultural  class 
and  should  not  be  open  to  those  boys  and  girls  who  are 
too  young  to  appreciate  and  undertake  properly  this  line 
of  work. 

The  basis  of  award  for  a  soil  fertility  club  may  be  as 
follows: 


SOIL  MOISTURE  343 

1.  The  plan  and  management   of  rotation 20 

2.  The    average   yield   per   acre 20 

3.  The-  net   profit    on   investment 20 

4.  The  fertile  condition  of  the  soil  at  the  end  of  a  three  or 

four-year    period . 20 

5.  Soil  and  crop  records,  story  and  soil  chart  of  work 20 

Total     score 100 


PART  IV.    FARM  ANIMALS 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
FARM   ANIMALS   AND   AGRICULTURE 

FARM  animals  form  one  of  the  most  important  sources  of 
wealth  in  the  nation.  The  five  most  important  groups 
of  animals,  ranked  according  to  their  market  value,  are 
horses,  cattle,  hogs,  mules  and  sheep.  If  these  animals' 
should  all  be  sold,  they  would  bring  the  enormous  sum  of 
nearly  six  billion  dollars,  or  sixty  dollars  for  every  man, 
woman  and  child  in  the  United  States. 

1.    Work  Animals 

Farm  animals  serve  several  important  uses:  (1)  they 
provide  food  for  man,  (2)  they  work  for  him,  and  (3)  they 
supply  various  useful  products.  The  total  market  value  of 
the  working  animals,  horses  and  mules,  is  slightly  greater 
than  that  of  the  food  producing  group,  cattle,  sheep  and 
hogs. 

Using  animals  for  work. — Centuries  ago  man  had  not 
yet  domesticated  the  animals  and  trained  them  to  work  for 
him.  Since  the  uses  of  steam  and  electricity  had  not  been 
discovered,  all  labor  had  to  be  done  by  men  themselves. 
The  implements  used  for  cultivating  the  soil  were  all  crude 

344 


FARM  ANIMALS  345 

and  ineffective,  and  could  only  be  operated  by  hand.  It 
then  required  much  more  time  and  effort  to  secure  a  living  by 
agriculture  than  it  does  now. 

One  of  the  greatest  lines  of  progress  in  America  has 
been  the  substitution  of  animal  and  machine  power  for  man 
power  in  doing  farm  work.  In  this  we  are  far  ahead  of 
most  other  nations,  even  those  of  Europe.  For  example,  we 
haye  in  the  United  States  almost  twenty-five  million  horses, 
or  approximately  one  to  every  four  persons.  In  France,  one 
horse  has  to  serve  ten  people ;  in  Germany,  thirteen,  and  in 
Great  Britain,  twenty-six. 

Saving  in  time  by  work  of  animals. — The  use  of  work 
animals  has  resulted  in  great  saving  of  time.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  in  1830  each  bushel  of  wheat  grown  in  the 
United  States  required  three  hours  of  a  man's  time;  it  now 
requires  less  than  ten  minutes.  In  1850  it  took  a  man  four 
and  one-half  hours  on  an  average  to  grow,  harvest  and 
shell  a  bushel  of  corn ;  it  now  requires  less  than  forty  min- 
utes. The  greater  part  of  this  saving  has  come  through  the 
use  of  improved  farm  machinery  drawn  by  horses  or  mules. 

Where  the  peasants  of  European  countries  use  shovels, 
hoes,  scythes  or  other  primitive  implements,  we  employ 
gang-plows,  disk  harrows  and  self-binders.  The  great  sav- 
ing in  human  energy  and  time  growing  out  of  this  dif- 
ference is  seen  when  it  is  remembered  that  one  horse  hitched 
to  modern  machinery  can  do  the  work  of  at  least  ten  men 
with  hand  tools.  Many  an  American  boy  with  his  four- 
horse  team  is  therefore  accomplishing  the  labor  of  forty 
European  peasants  with  their  hand  work  and  crude  tools. 

The  animals  used  for  work. — Among  the  various  ani- 
mals that  men  have  trained  to  work  for  them  are  horses, 
cattle,  mules,  buffalo,  reindeer,  camels,  dogs  and  elephants. 
No  animals,  except  horses,  mules  and  cattle,  have  ever  been 


346  AGRICULTURE 

extensively  used  for  farm  work  in  this  country.    The  use  of 
oxen  for  work  has  now  been  almost  wholly  discontinued. 

During  recent  years,  horses  and  mules  have  found  a  com- 
petitor in  the  automobile  and  the  traction-engine.  Thousands 
of  farmers  now  own  their  cars,  and  the  gasoline  tractor  is 
a  common  sight  on  many  of  the  larger  western  farms.  In 
spite  of  these  facts,  however,  the  number  of  horses  and 
mules  on  our  farms  is  constantly  increasing,  and  the  mar- 
ket for  them  is  growing  better  and  more  uniform.  The 
price  of  work  animals  is  considerably  higher  than  it  was 
when  automobiles  and  traction-engines  began  to  come  into 
use.  Horses  will  always  have  an  important  place  in  the 
economy  of  the  farm. 

2.    Animals  That  Supply  Food 

Meat  and  other  animal  products  form  a  very  important 
part  of  our  food  supply.  Even  vegetarians,  who  are  op- 
posed to  the  eating  of  flesh,  depend  largely  on  such  foods 
as  butter,  eggs  and  milk. 

Meat  as  food. — A  great  proportion  of  all  our  farm 
crops  goes  to  the  feeding  of  meat  producing  animals.  The 
most  progressive  nations  of  the  world  are  those  that  in  ad- 
dition to  fruit  and  vegetables  for  the  diet  make  much 
use  of  their  domestic  animals  in  supplying  food  prod- 
ucts. Meat  is  a  more  expensive  food  than  grains  and  vege- 
tables, and  people  of  the  poorer  classes  can  not  afford  to 
eat  it.  Millions  of  those  living  in  oriental  countries  seldom 
taste  meat  in  any  form.  Lack  of  nutrition  and  a  balanced 
ration  are  shown  in  absence  of  ambition  and  enterprise. 

According  to  careful  estimates  the  food  supply  in 
American  homes  is  divided  among  the  different  foods  in 
approximately  the  following  proportions  (Farmers'  Bulletin 
391): 


FARM  ANIMALS 


347 


Meats   and   poultry . 16% 

Dairy     products 18% 

Cereals  and  their  products 31% 

Vegetables   and   fruits . 25% 

All   other   foods 10% 

It  is  therefore  seen  that  we  derive  more  than  one-third 
of  all  our  food  in  this  country  from  animals,  either  by  con- 


Making  hogs  of  themselves. 


suming  their 


flesh  or  other  products  from  them,  such  as 
milk,  butter,  cheese,  etc. 

Animals  used  for  meat. — The  animals  whose  flesh  is 
chiefly  used  for  food  are  cattle,  hogs,  poultry  and  sheep.  So 
great  has  the  industry  of  preparing  their  flesh  for  food  be- 
come, that  every  city  has  its  great  stock-yards  and  slaugh- 
ter-houses, where  hundreds  of  thousands  of  animals  are 
killed  every  year.  Cold  storage  vaults  are  provided  in  which 


348  AGRICULTURE 

meats  can  be  kept  at  a  temperature  below  freezing  for 
months  at  a  time.  Much  of  the  meat  that  is  now  used  on 
the  farms  is  first  shipped  to  the  city  packing  houses  for 
slaughter,  and  then  bought  back  from  retail  dealers  as 
needed,  in  the  form  of  bacon,  ham,  canned  or  dried  beef, 
or  as  fresh  meats  shipped  in  refrigerator  cars.  Many  small 
towns  also  have  their  local  slaughter-houses,  where  animals 
purchased  from  the  farms  are  killed  for  home  consumption. 

Other  food  products  from  animals. — The  other  food 
products  from  animal  life,  such  as  milk,  butter,  eggs  and 
cheese,  are  even  more  important.  Milk  and  eggs  contain 
more  of  the  different  food  elements  needed  by  the  human 
body  than  any  other  foods;  and  butter  is  as  necessary  as 
meat. 

The  dairy  and  poultry  industries  are  therefore  among  the 
most  important  enterprises  connected  with  agriculture.  Milk 
and  butter  are  shipped  to  the  cities  in  refrigerator  cars  or 
special  trains.  Hundreds  of  creameries  are  operated  to  save 
time  for  the  farmer  and  insure  him  greater  profit.  Many  train 
loads  of  eggs  and  butter  are  collected  during  the  summer 
months  and  put  in  cold  storage  and  kept  for  the  winter 
supply. 

3.    Other  Animal  Products 

The  farm  animals  are  useful  in  other  ways  than  doing 
work  and  providing  food  for  man.  Many  practical  neces- 
sities are  supplied  by  them. 

Leather. — The  skins  of  all  the  common  farm  animals 
are  saved  for  leather.  Cattle,  horses,  sheep  and  even  pigs, 
contribute  to  the  making  of  our  shoes,  gloves,  mittens,  har- 
nesses, saddles,  cushions  and  many  other  articles  in  com- 
mon use. 

Wool. — Sheep  furnish  one  of  the  most  valuable  cloth- 
ing materials  known.     Many  sheep  ranches  are  maintained 


FARM  ANIMALS  349 

chiefly  for  the  fleeces,  mutton  being  of  secondary  consid- 
eration. More  than  thirty-eight  million  sheep  annually  give 
up  their  wool  in  the  United  States  for  the  making  of  cloth- 
ing and  other  articles  for  the  household. 

Other  products. — We  owe  many  other  articles  of 
common  use  to  some  form  of  animal  product.  Our  brushes 
are  made  from  bristles.  Buttons  are  cut  from  bone.  Gelatin 
and  glue  are  both  animal  products.  Many  soaps  are  made 
from  animal  parts  not  suitable  for  meat.  Blood  and  bone, 
as  we  have  already  discovered,  are  used  for  fertilizers.  So 
completely  are  all  parts  of  slaughtered  animals  saved  for 
some  useful  purpose  that  it  is  said  nothing  is  lost  of  the 
pig  when  it  is  killed,  except  the  "squeal." 

It  is  estimated  that  the  value  for  fertilizing  purposes  of 
the  manure  of  all  farm  animals  in  the  United  States,  if 
properly  saved  and  applied  to  the  soil,  would  annually  reach 
the  stupendous  amount  of  more  than  two  billion  dollars. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  M'ake  a  careful  list  of  all  animals  belonging  on  your 
home  farm.  Have  your  father  help  estimate  what  each  one 
is  worth,  and  compute  the  value  of  all  live  stock,  and  find 
the  annual  interest  on  this  amount  at  six  per  cent. 

2.  How  many  bushels  of  corn  were  raised  on  your 
farm  last  year?  On  the  basis  of  the  time  required  for  pro- 
ducing a  bushel  of  corn  in  1850,  how  many  days  of  nine 
hours  each  would  have  been  required  to  produce  this  crop 
with  machinery  then  in  use?  Make  the  same  computation 
with  the  wheat  raised  on  your  farm,  comparing  with  the  time 
required  to  produce  a  bushel  in  1830. 

3.  Talk  with  your  mother,  and  see  whether  you  can  es- 
timate what  proportion  of  the  food  used  on  your  table 
comes  from  each  of  the  classes  shown  in  section  two. 

4.  Make  an  investigation  by  reading  and  inquiring 
among  people  of  the  amount  of  meat,  butter,  eggs  and 
milk  used    by  the  farming  class    in    England,   Germany, 


350  AGRICULTURE 

France,    Spain,   Russia,    China.      Compare   with   our   own 
country. 

5.  Is  there  any  country  where  the  buffalo  is  now  used 
as  a  work  animal  ?  The  elephant  ?  The  camel  ?  Where  are 
reindeer  used,  and  for  what  purpose  ?  What  are  the  differ- 
ent lines  of  work  in  which  dogs  are  employed? 

6.  Show  on  the  map  of  the  United  States  the  most 
important  regions  for  the  production  of  the  various  types 
of  domestic  animals,  such  as  the  horse,  dairy  and  beef  cat- 
tle, the  sheep,  the  hog  and  the  goat.  Consult  the  last 
census  report  with  reference  to  increase  or  decrease  of  farm 
animals  in  the  various  states. 


CHAPTER  XXV 
CATTLE 

CATTLE  rank  second  only  to  horses  in  market  value  in 
the  United  States.  Our  farms  support  some  twenty- 
two  million  dairy  cows,  or  one  to  approximately  every  four 
people.  In  addition,  there  are  about  thirty-seven  million 
other  cattle,  chiefly  calves  and  beef  stock.  The  value  of 
each  of  these  two  great  groups  is  about  the  same,  nearly  a 
billion  dollars,  or  almost  two  billion  dollars  for  the  whole. 

L    Dairy  Cattle 

Dairying  is  one  of  the  leading  American  industries. 
Each  of  six  states,  Wisconsin,  New  York,  Iowa,  Minnesota,, 
Illinois  and  Texas,  has  more  than  a  million  dairy  cows,  and 
four  other  states,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Michigan  and  Mis- 
souri, have  more  than  three-quarters  of  a  million  each. 
These  ten  states  supply  fifty-three  per  cent,  of  all  our  dairy 
products. 

The  following  chart  shows  the  percentage  of  all  the  farm 
dairy  cows  of  the  United  States  found  in  each  of  these 
ten  leading  dairy  states: 

Wisconsin  7.3% 

New  York  7.1% 

Iowa  6.5% 

Minnesota  5.5% 

Illinois 5.0% 

Texas  5.0% 

Pennsylvania  4.6% 

Ohio  4.2% 

Michigan  3.9% 

Missouri  3.8% 

24  351 


352  AGRICULTURE 

Profitable  and  unprofitable  cows. — Whether  a  dairy 
herd  yields  a  profit  or  a  loss  depends  first  of  all  on  the  milk 
and  butter-fat  producing  capacities  of  the  individual  cows. 
A  poor  cow  may  require  as  much  feed  as  a  good  one,  and 
demands  as  much  labor  and  attention. 

li:  has  been  estimated  that  one-third  of  the  dairy  cows 
in  the  United   States  are  kept  at  an  actual  loss.     Twice 


A  champion  Hereford. 

every  day,  therefore,  there  are  milked  some  seven  million 
cows,  mere  "boarders,"  that  not  only  return  no  profit,  but 
use  up  the  profit  from  good  cows.  How  many  cows  of  tliis 
kind  are  kept  on  your  farm  ?    How  may  you  know  ? 

Profit  differences  in  herds. — It  is  estimated  that  the 
skim-milk,  calf  and  manure  from  a  dairy  cow  are  worth 
the  cost  of  caring  for  her.  This  leaves  the  milk  to  bal- 
ance   against    the    value    of    the    feed.      The    difference 


CATTLE  '  353 

between  the  best  and  the  poorest  cow  in  almost  any  herd 
is  surprising.  This  difference  is  well  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing record  of  fifteen  cows  for  one  year  in  an  Illinois 
herd : 


No. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Per  cent. 

cow 

milk 

fat 

fat 

Profit 

Loss 

1 

1204 

49 

4.07 

S27.52  ■ 

2 

1236 

50 

4.05 



27.20 

3 

2944 

88 

2.99 



15.17 

4 

2597 

91 

3.50 



15.38 

5 

2548 

98 

3.85 



13.18 

6 

2475 

99 

4.00 

13.18 

7 

2569 

105 

4.09 



10.98 

8 

3164 

117 

3.70 



8.37 

9 

2829 

123 

4.34 



8.67 

10 

3380 

149 

4.41 



1.58 

11 

4582 

158 

3.45 

$1.41 

12 

4146 

174 

4.20 

3.41 



13 

4103 

177 

4.31 

5.41 



14 

4993 

191 

3.82 

8.40 



15 

4435 

200 

4.51 

10.21 
$28.84 

Loss 

$141.23 
28.84 

$112.39 

Av. 

3147 

124 

3.94 

$     7.49 

Difference  in  profit 

between 

best  and 

poorest 

cow,  P7.73 

This  was  an  exceptionally  poor  herd,  so  poor  that  it 
lost  the  owner  $112.39  for  the  year — an  average  loss  of 
$7.49  per  cow.  Either  of  the  two  poorest  cows  lost  almost 
as  much  as  the  best  five  made  their  owner.  Even  the  best 
cow  of  this  herd  is  poor  enough,  but  there  is  a  difference 


354  AGRICULTURE 

of  ^37.73  in  the  year's  record  between   the  best  and  the 
poorest. 

2.    Selecting  Dairy  Cows  According  to  Type 

Dairy  cows  may  be  selected  by  two  different  methods: 
(1)  keeping  a  record  of  the  amount  of  milk  produced,  with 
the  percentage  of  butter-fat  it  contains;  and  (2)  judging 
whether  the  cow  conforms  to  the  physical  type  known  as 
good  dairy  stock.  The  first  of  these  is  the  only  absolutely 
sure  method.  The  second  is  also  of  great  value,  for  cows 
are  often  bought  without  any  possibility  of  learning  their 
milk  record.  Every  farmer  should,  therefore,  know  the 
points  of  a  good  dairy  cow. 

The  dairy  type  of  cow. — Dairy  cattle  and  beef  cattle 
present  two  rather  distinct  types  as  to  form,  or  build,  and 
appearance.  In  general,  the  frame  of  the  beef  animal  is 
the  shape  capable  of  taking  on  the  largest  amount  of  flesh, 
while  that  of  the  dairy  cow  is  adapted  to  the  production 
of  milk.  Both  types  must  be  good  eaters,  for  only  the 
food  above  the  amount  required  for  maintaining  the  body 
can  go  to  the  production  of  either  beef  or  milk. 

The  good  dairy  cow  is  spare  of  flesh,  for  the  surplus 
food  must  be  turned  into  milk  instead  of  fat.  She  appears 
somewhat  loose- jointed,  but  the  muscles  are  well  developed. 
The  coat  is  smooth  and  soft,  the  eyes  are  bright,  and  the  dis- 
position is  wide-awake  and  active.  The  jaw  is  strong,  the 
stomach  and  other  organs  of  digestion  are  capacious.  The 
circulatory  system  needs  size  and  strength,  as  it  must  supply 
abundance  of  material  for  the  production  of  milk.  The 
udder  is  well  shaped  and  large. 

Shape  of  the  dairy  cow. — The  typical  dairy  cow  has 
what  is  called  a  wedge  conformation,  especially  if  viewed 
from  front  to  rear ;  that  is,  the  body  outline  as  a  whole, 
whether  viewed  from  side,  top,  or  front,  roughly  resembles 
a  wedge. 


CATTLE 


355 


The  side  wedge  has  its  base  in  a  line  formed  by  the  depth 
of  the  body  through  the  hips  to  the  lower  extremity  of  the 
udder,  with  the  point  of  the  wedge  at  the  head.  The  top 
wedge  has  its  base  in  a  line  across  the  width  of  the  hips, 
and  its  point  at  the  withers.    The  front  wedge  has  its  base 


1. 

Muule 

8. 

Neck 

16. 

Klbs 

22. 

Thighs 

2. 

J»w 

9. 

Wither* 

16. 

Burrel 

23. 

Hind  legs 

3. 

r»ce 

10. 

Shoulders 

17. 

iKkiXl 

24. 

Odder  • 

4. 

TorehtiA 

11. 

For*   legs 

18. 

Hips 

25. 

Tests 

B. 

Ey»» 

12. 

Crops 

19. 

Rump 
Pin  bones 

26. 

MUk  reins 

6. 

Ears 

13. 

Chest 

20. 

27, 

MiUc  iraUs 

7. 

TllTOAt 

X4. 

BMk 

21. 

TftU 

Parts  of  a  dairy  cow. 

in  a  line  across  the  floor  of  the  chest,  and  its  point  at  the 
top  of  the  withers. 

It  is  readily  seen  that  the  shape  given  the  body  by  these 
three  wedge  conformations  allows  a  generous  amount  of 
room  for  the  digestive  and  circulatory  systems  and  the 
udder.  This  form  does  not,  however,  give  a  frame  capable 
of  taking  on  a  large  amount  of  flesh,  and  is  therefore  not 
adapted  to  beef  cattle. 


356  AGRICULTURE 


3.    Juds'incr  the  Dairy  Cozv 


Various  score-cards  are  in  use  for  the  judging  of  dairy 
cows.  Judging  by  use  of  the  score-card  trains  one  in  accu- 
rate observation  and  judgment,  and  shows  the  relative  vahie 
of  the  dififerent  points.  Secure  a  score-card  from  your  state 
college  of  agriculture  or  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  learn  to  use  it  in  judging  cattle. 

4.    Selecting  the  Dairy  Cozv  by  Milk  Tests 

The  profit  from  a  dairy  cow  depends  on  two  factors, 
(1)  the  amount  of  milk  produced,  and  (2)  the  percentage 
of  butter-fat  in  the  milk.  The  first  of  these  questions  can 
be  determined  by  weighing  the  milk ;  the  second,  by  testing 
the  milk  with  the  Babcock  milk  test. 

Testing  the  milk  of  different  cows. — In  order  to  de- 
termine the  record  of  each  cow  of  the  herd,  the  milk  must 
be  weighed  and  tested  regularly  throughout  the  season.  The 
testing  and  weighing  may  be  done  daily,  though  this  fre- 
quent a  test  is  hardly  necessary  for  practical  farm  purposes. 
A  plan  followed  by  many  farmers  is  to  weigh  the  milk  daily, 
and  test  the  butter-fat  of  both  night's  milk  and  morning's 
milk  once  a  month. 

Making  the  Babcock  test  for  butter-fat. — It  is  not 
the  quantity  of  milk  alone  that  determines  the  value  of  a 
cow.  Practically  all  milk  and  cream  now  sold  from  the 
farm  for  butter-making  purposes  are  paid  for,  not  by  weight 
or  bulk,  but  by  the  amount  of  butter-fat  they  contain.  The 
purpose  of  the  Babcock  test  is  to  measure  the  percentage 
of  butter-fat  in  milk.  Every  dairy  farm  should  regularly 
use  this  test. 

The  materials  for  making  the  Babcock  test  are  (1)  a 
hand-power  centrifugal  tester;  (2)  two  or  more  milk  test- 
bottles;  (3)  a  pipette  to  measure  the  milk;  (4)  a  small  glass 


CATTLE 


357 


measure  for  acid;  (5)  sulphuric  acid  with  specific  gravity  of 
1.82;  (6)  hot  water.  The  necessary  apparatus  can  be 
bought  for  about  five  dollars,  though  a  fuller  equipment 
may  cost  as  much  as  twenty  dollars.  Full  directions  for 
making  the  test  come  with  each  set  of  apparatus. 

Steps  i|i  the  Babcock  test. — The  Babcock  test  is  not 
difficult  to  make,  nor  does  it  require  much  time.    Yet  great 


A  Galloway  prize  winner. 


care  must  be  taken  if  the  results  are  to  be  trustworthy.    The 
following  are  the  steps  required  in  making  the  test: 

1.  Stir  the  milk  thoroughly  before  taking  the  sample. 

2.  Fill  the  pipette  to  the  height  shown  by  the  mark. 

3.  Empty  the  pipette  into  the  test-bottle,  blowing  to  drive 
all  the  milk  out. 

4.  Fill  the  acid  measure  to  the  mark  shown  with  sulphuric 
acid,  and  add  to  the  test-bottle. 

5.  Shake  the  bottle  to  mix  the  milk  and  acid  thoroughly. 


358  AGRICULTURE 

6.  Place  the  bottles  in  the  machine,  and  whirl  five  minutes. 

7.  Add  hot  water  to  each  bottle  until  filled  to  bottom  of 
neck,  and  whirl  one  minute. 

8.  Add  more  hot  water  to  bring  the  top  of  the  fat  nearly 
to  the  top  of  the  marks  on  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  and  whirl 
one   minute. 

9.  Read  the  per  cent,  of  fat  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle;  this 
indicates  the  quality  of  the  milk. 

10.  Empty  the  test  bottles  and  wash. 

The  percentage  of  butter-fat  ought  to  be  not  less  than 
three  and  five-tenths,  and  should  range  up  to  five  or  occa- 
sionally even  six  in  the  milk  of  the  better  cows. 

5.    Dairy  Breeds 

Dairymen  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  type  of  cow  that  is 
most  profitable.  Some  prefer  what  they  call  a  "general- 
purpose  cow/'  combining  as  far  as  possible  the  qualities  of 
both  dairy  and  beef  breeds.  Such  animals  are  usually  of 
large  frame,  take  on  flesh  readily,  and  so  are  easily  con- 
verted into  beef  when  this  is  more  profitable  than  milking. 
Other  dairymen  select  the  pure  dairy  breeds,  preferring  to 
get  their  profit  out  of  the  milk  produced,  rather  than  from 
the  beef.  Which  is  the  better  plan  will  depend  on  local 
conditions  and  demands. 

Choosing  the  dairy  breed. — It  is  impossible  to  select 
any  one  breed  of  dairy  cattle  as  the  best  under  all  condi- 
tions. Some  are  noted  for  producing  large  quantities  of 
milk,  and  others  for  producing  milk  rich  in  butter-fat.  Some 
do  best  when  allowed  a  wide  range  for  foraging,  and  others 
when  they  are  kept  close  and  fed  high.  Some  give  a  large 
flow  of  milk  for  a  short  season,  and  others  a  smaller  flow 
for  a  longer  time.  The  dairyman  should  decide  what  par- 
ticular qualities  are  best  adapted  to  his  needs,  and  then 
select  the  breed  that  will  meet  these  needs. 


3.45 

300 

12.99 

5.14 

283 

14.2 

4.98 

274 

14.2 

3.85 

252 

12.98 

CATTLE  359 

Leading  dairy  breeds. — Among  the  best-known 
breeds  of  dairy  cattle  are  the  Holstein,  or  Holstein-Friesian, 
as  they  are  officially  named ;  the  Jersey ;  the  Guernsey ;  and 
the  Ayrshire.  The  Shorthorns  are  also  a  favorite  class, 
combining  in  large  degree  both  dairy  and  beef  qualities. 
Records  kept  for  one  year  in  various  experiment  stations  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  show  the  fol- 
lowing average  ratings  as  milk  producers  of  the  first  four 
of  these  breeds  in  the  station  herds : 


Pounds        Per  cent.        Pounds         Per  cent. 
Breed  of  milk  of    fat  of  fat         total  solids 

Holstein    8699 

Jersey    5508 

Guernsey ^  5509 

Ayrshire    6533 

Average    6562.25  4^355  277.25  13.5925 


6.     Feeding  Dairy  Cows 

Just  as  the  soil  must  contain  the  food  elements  needed 
in  the  growth  of  the  plant,  so  the  dairy  cow's  rations  must 
contain  the  elements  required  to  produce  milk  and  upbuild 
the  body.  If  proper  food  is  not  supplied,  either  the  amount 
of  milk  or  its  quality  will  be  sure  to  suffer.  Only  three 
different  food  elements,  or  nutrients,  are  likely  to  run  short 
in  the  ordinary  rations  of  the  cow;  these  are  (1)  protein, 
(2)  carbohydrate,  and  (3)  fat. 

Protein. — Protein  is  required  in  the  animal  body  for 
the  making  of  all  muscular  parts,  blood  and  connective 
tissue.  It  supplies  nearly  one-third  of  the  solid  part  of  milk, 
going  to  form  the  curd  and  albumen. 

It  is  fortunate  that  the  nitrogenous  plants  so  valuable 
in  building  up  the  soil  are  also  rich  in  protein.     Alfalfa, 


360 


AGRICULTURE 


"Banastine  Belle  de  Kol,"  a  champion  Holstein  cow  with  a 
record  of  1,058.34  pounds  of  butter-fat  in  365  days. 


The  1914  dairy  ciiampion  ol  the  United  States,  "May  Rilma," 
a  Guernsey.  Her  record  for  365  days  was  19,639.5  pounds  of 
milk  and  1,059.59  pounds  of  butter-fat 


CATTLE  361 

clover,  cow-peas,  soy-beans,  the  vetches  and  other  legumes 
are  therefore  desirable  as  a  part  of  the  dairy  ration.  Bran, 
linseed  meal,  cottonseed-meal,  gluten  feed  and  oats  are  also 
rich  in  protein.  Protein  should  make  up  approximately  one- 
sixth  of  the  cow's  ration  during  the  milking  season;  no 
other  food  can  take  its  place.  It  is  the  most  expensive  part 
of  the  ration,  and  should  be  secured  as  far  as  possible  from 
home-grown  legumes. 

Carbohydrates. — The  carbohydrates,  are  necessary  to 
supply  energy,  heat  and  fat  for  the  animal  body,  and  sugar 
and  fat  in  the  milk.  All  the  common  grains  are  rich  in 
carbohydrates,  which  are  the  cheapest  nutrient  of  the  cow's 
rations.  Among  the  more  common  carbohydrate  feeds  are 
corn,  corn  silage,  corn  stover,  oats  straw,  millet  hay,  sugar 
beets  and  dried  beet  pulp.  In  some  cases  sugar  beet  feeds 
have  not  proved  satisfactory  owing  to  their  temporary  effect 
upon  quality  of  the  milk.  Timothy  hay  should  not  form 
a  part  of  the  dairy  ration,  as  it  has  few  of  the  elements  re- 
quired in  producing  milk. 

Fat. — Fat  is  tised  for  practically  the  same  purposes 
as  the  carbohydrates  in  maintaining  the  body  and  produc- 
ing milk.  It  is  contained  in  some  degree  in  all  feeds, 
though  in  smaller  quantities  than  carbohydrates,  and  in 
more  concentrated  form.  It  has  been  found  that  one  pound 
of  fat  will  serve  the  same  purpose  in  the  dairy  ration  as 
two  and  one-fourth  pounds  of  carbohydrates. 

The  balanced  ration. — By  a  balanced  ration  is  meant 
a  ration  which  contains  the  right  digestible  proportion  of 
each  kind  of  nutrient  demanded  by  the  animal.  The  term 
nutritive  ratio  is  used  when  speaking  of  the  relation  of  pro- 
tein to  carbohydrate  and  fat  in  the  ration.  The  nutritive 
ratio  of  the  dairy  ration  is  1:6;  this  is  to  say,  one  part  of 
digestible  protein  to  six  parts  of  carbohydrates  and  fat  com- 


362  AGRICULTURE 

bined.      The    following  tables   show   several   balanced    and 
economical  rations  for  dairy  cows  :* 

Ration  I.  Ration  II. 

Corn  silage 30  pounds  Sugar  beets 25    pounds 

Cow-pea   hay  __  10        "  Alfalfa  hay 10 

Corn   stover 2        "  Corn  stover 5        " 

Corn 6        "  Corn    5 

Cottonseed-meal     1.5     "  Dried  brewers* 

grains   5        " 

Ration  III.  Ration  IV. 

Clover  hay 18  pounds  Corn  silage 30     pounds 

Corn 5        "  Canadian  pea  and 

Wheat    bran    or  oat  hay 10        " 

oats 6        "  Oats 5 

Cottonseed-meal     1        "  Gluten    feed 4        " 

It  must  be  remembered  that,  no  matter  what  the  feeds 
used  to  supply  the  protein,  carbohydrate  and  fat,  there  must 
also  be  a  certain  amount  of  roughage  in  the  ration.  All 
browsing  or  grazing  animals  require  bulky  feed,  and  can  not 
thrive  on  concentrated  material  alone. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Are  the  cattle  on  your  home  farm  of  dairy  breed, 
beef  breed,  or  "general  purpose"  breed?  Talk  with  your 
father  and  learn  the  lineage  of  each  of  your  milk  cows. 
Are  they  ''blooded,"  "grade,"  or  "scrub"  stock?  Is  your 
herd  being  "selected"  toward  any  pure  breed? 

2.  Is  the  milk  produced  by  your  cows  weighed  and 
tested  for  butter-fat?  If  so,  how  does  the  record  of  the 
herd  compare  with  the  herds  referred  to  in  the  chap- 
ter? If  no  tests  are  being  made,  talk  with  your  father  about 
getting  the  apparatus  for  the  Babcock  test.  After  making 
the  test  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher,  bring  samples 

*  (Purdue  Ext.  Bui.  No.  21.) 


CATTLE 


363 


of  Hood  Farm   I8974B 
-    Lowell; Mass.  ....^..^ 

A   champion   Jersey   cow   with   a   butter-fat    record    of   009.14 
pounds  in  365  days. 


A  champion  Shorthorn  cow,  a  general  purpose  breed  adapted 
both  to  beef  and  milk  production. 


364  AGRICULTURE 

of  milk  from  home  and  make  the  test  for  several  of  your 
cows  with  the  school  tester. 

3.  Weigh  the  milk  produced  by  each  of  your  cows  for  a 
week,  keeping  a  careful  record.  Now  have  your  father 
help  you  estimate  what  each  cow  will  produce  during  one 
year,  taking  into  account  the  length  of  time  each  one  milks, 
and  the  changes  due  to  season,  etc.  Compare  with  the 
results  found  by  other  members  of  the  class. 

4.  Weigh  carefully  the  feed  that  is  regularly  given 
one  of  your  cows  for  one  day.  Compare  with  the  sample 
rations  shown  in  the  chapter.  Are  you  feeding  a  balanced 
ration  ?  If  not,  in  which  nutrient  is  it  short  ?  What  should 
be  done? 

7.    Producing  Clean  Milk 

Milk  is  perfectly  clean  as  it  comes  from  the  cow.  It  is 
easily  tainted,  however,  either  by  filth  that  may  fall  into 
the  pail  during  the  milking,  or  from  dirty  utensils.  Dirty 
milk  makes  dissatisfied  customers,  endangers  the  health  of 
users,  especially  children,  hastens  souring,  makes  a  lower 
grade  of  butter,  and  indicates  shiftlessness  and  low  stand- 
ards of  dairying. 

The  cow  barn. — ^The  cow  barn  should  be  constructed 
for  the  comfort,  cleanliness  and  hygiene  of  its  occupants. 
It  should  be  well  ventilated  and  have  plenty  of  Hght.  The 
floor  should  be  of  some  hard  material,  preferably  cement, 
and  water-tight.  The  stalls  should  be  the  right  length  for 
the  cows,  and  have  a  shallow  gutter  at  the  rear  with  slope 
enough  toward  one  end  to  permit  drainage.  Instead  of  a 
feed  manger  in  front,  there  should  be  a  liquid-tight  trough, 
also  with  a  slight  slope,  that  it  may  be  washed  out.  All 
floors  should  be  kept  thoroughly  washed  by  means  of  a 
hose  and  stiff  brushes. 

Cleanliness  in  milking. — Before  the  milking  is  begun, 
both  the  cow  and  the  milker  should  be  clean.  If  the  cow 
is  dusty,  the  dust  should  be  well  brushed  out.     The  udder 


CATTLE  365 

should  be  wiped  clean,  washed,  or  sponged  off,  as  may  be 
required.  The  milker's  hands  should  be  freshly  cleansed,  as 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  keep  the  milk  from  touching  them. 

Special  suits  should  be  kept  for  milking,  and  should  be 
frequently  washed.  The  practise  of  putting  on  old,  greasy 
and  unwashed  clothes,  simply  to  save  soiling  other  garments 
while  milking,  is  too  filthy  to  be  permitted  in  any  dairy. 
All  utensils  should  be  kept  in  a  perfectly  clean  place,  and 
well  scalded  once  each  day. 

A  careful  analysis  of  the  dirt  contained  in  milk  shows 
about  nine-tenths  of  it  to  be  cow  manure.  The  other  tenth 
is  hair  from  the  cow,  dirt  from  the  cow  or  the  milker,  par- 
ticles of  the  feed  used,  and  disease  germs  from  the  cow  or 
hands  of  the  milker.  No  dairyman  should  ask  a  consumer 
to  eat  such  an  array  of  filth  as  this. 

Straining  the  milk. — Much  of  the  dirt  that  gets  into 
the  milk  can  not  be  strained  out,  since  it  fully  dissolves  and 
will  pass  through  the  strainer  as  easily  as  the  milk  itself. 
A  good  strainer  will,  however,  remove  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  insoluble  matter. 

A  wire  mesh  strainer  should  never  be  used.  The  strainer 
should  be  cone-shaped,  with  gauze  and  absorbent  cotton 
forming  the  outlet.  One  thickness  of  the  cotton  is  placed 
between  four  thicknesses  of  gauze,  two  on  each  side,  and 
held  in  place  by  a  ring  which  fits  over  the  edges  and  at- 
taches it  to  the  bottom  of  the  receptacle.  The  cotton  should 
be  destroyed  after  each  straining,  and  never  used  a  second 
time.  The  additional  expense  for  this  type  of  strainer  is 
slight,  and  should  keep  no  progressive  dairyman  from  us- 
ing it. 

Cooling  the  milk. — After  cleanliness,  the  next  essen- 
tial to  good  care  of  milk  is  quick  cooling.  So  important 
is  quick  cooling  to  prevent  souring  of  milk  and  keep  it  in 


366  AGRICULTURE 

good  condition  that  a  higher  price  is  often  paid  for  milk 
properly  cooled  than  for  uncooled  milk. 

For  the  best  results  some  form  of  cooling  apparatus  is 
necessary.  Various  machines  for  this  purpose  can  be  had 
for  from  ten  to  twenty-five  dollars.  An  average  of  about 
five  cents'  worth  of  ice  is  required  for  each  hundred  pounds 
of  milk  during  the  warm  months.  Milk  should  be  cooled 
down  to  forty-five  degrees  in  a  few  minutes  of  time. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Make  a  careful  study  of  the  distinguishing  marks  of 
each  of  the  chief  dairy  breeds,  and  learn  to  identify  dif- 
ferent breeds  at  sight. 

2.  Consider  the  conditions  of  your  home  dairy  barn. 
Has  it  plenty  of  light?  Is  it  well  ventilated?  Are  the 
stalls  the  right  length  for  the  cows  ?  Is  the  floor  tight  ?  Are 
the  rear  gutter  and  the  feed  trough  of  a  good  type  ?  Is  the 
barn  clean?    How  would  you  disinfect  the  dairy  barn  ? 

3.  What  steps  are  taken  in  your  dairy  toward 
cleaning  the  cows  each  time  before  milking?  Do  the  cows 
get  soiled  from  the  stalls  ?  Are  the  milkers'  hands  washed 
before  milking?  What  kind  of  a  strainer  do  you  use?  Is 
your  milk  clean  when  it  is  ready  for  cooling. 

4.  Has  your  state  a  law  requiring  the  tuberculin  test 
for  dairy  herds?  Has  your  father's  herd  had  the  test? 
If  so,  how  often  is  the  test  applied?  With  what  results? 
Have  you  any  cows  with  a  cough?  With  coats  that  look 
rough  and  dead?  Are  any  of  your  cows  losing  in  flesh  or 
amount  of  milk  without  seeming  cause?  Have  any  of  them 
lumps  in  their  udders?  All  these  things  are  symptoms  of 
tuberculosis. 

5.  Write  a  discussion  on  how  to  improve  dairy  condi- 
tions and  profits  in  your  region. 

6.  Show  how  to  keep  a  book  account  with  the  dairy 
and  cattle  interests  of  the  farm. 

7.  Indicate  on  the  map  of  the  United  States  the  dairy 
and  beef  producing  sections.  Consult  the  last  census  report 
and  insert  in  each  state  the  amount  of  beef  and  dairy  pro- 
duction. 


CATTLE 


367 


8.     Beef  Breeds 

Larger  profit  can  be  secured  from  dairy  than  from  beef 
cattle  with  the  same  amount  of  feed,  but  dairy  animals  re- 
quire a  niuch  greater  amount  of  labor  and  a  more  costly 
equipment.  The  work  necessary  to  care  for  fifteen  or 
twenty  dairy  cows  will  be  sufficient  to  tend  two  hundred 


Aucbenbrain  Brown  Kate  4tb,  Ayrsbire  cow  witb  a  365-day 
butter-fat  record  of  917.6  pounds. 

beef  animals.  Properly  managed,  the  raising  and  feeding 
of  cattle  for  beef  from  home-grown  feed  can  be  made  highly 
profitable. 

The  beef-producing  type. — Beef  and  dairy  cattle 
differ  widely  in  their  type.  For  the  production  of  beef, 
the  animal  must  be  able  to  use  a  large  proportion  of  its 
food  in  the  putting  on  of  flesh;  it  must  also  have  a  form 
capable  of  holding  a  large  amount  of  muscle  and  fat. 

The  beef  animal  should  have  a  conformation  that  (1) 

25 


368  AGRICULTURE 

favors  the  production  and  carrying  of  flesh;  (2)  suppUes 
the  best  proportion  of  good  cuts  of  meat  on  the  block;  (3) 
indicates  good  constitution  and  feeding  capacity. 

The  form  of  beef  animals. — Instead  of  the  wedge  con- 
formation of  the  dairy  cow,  beef  cattle  should  in  their  shape 
present  a  series  of  rectangles;  that  is,  they  should  be 
"blocky."  The  body  is  reasonably  long,  and  deep,  with 
short  sturdy  legs.  The  whole  form  presents  a  plump,  full- 
shaped  appearance.  The  back  is  broad  and  straight,  with 
ribs  well  arched  to  give  breadth  to  the  body.  The  quarters 
are  well  filled  and  thick.  The  skin  is  pliable,  rather  thick, 
and  the  coat  smooth  and  glossy. 

Judging  beef  cattle  with  the  score-card. — Because  of 
the  difference  in  type  between  dairy  and  beef  cattle,  it  is 
best  to  use  separate  score-cards  in  judging  them.  Secure  a 
score-card  from  your  state  college  of  agriculture  or  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  After  studying 
it  and  judging  one  or  more  animals  under  the  direction  of 
the  teacher,  each  member  of  the  class  should  judge  several 
beef  animals  from  the  home  herd,  asking  his  father  to  help 
in  the  judging. 

Beef  breeds. — Among  the  chief  breeds  of  beef  cattle  in 
the  United  States  are  Shorthorns,  or  Durhams,  Here  fords, 
Aberdeen-Angus,  and  Galloways.  Several  different  breeds 
have  also  developed  a  polled,  or  hornless  type.  Except  for 
the  lack  of  horns,  the  polled  breeds  closely  resemble  the 
parent  breed  from  which  they  were  derived. 

Feeding  beef  cattle. — Feeding  grain  and  roughage 
to  beef  cattle  is  a  more  profitable  way  to  market  them  than 
to  sell  them  off  the  farm.  In  this  way  the  fertility  of  the 
soil  is  also  conserved,  and  better  crops  produced. 

The  fattening  ration  for  cattle  is  slightly  different  from 
the  dairy  ration,  the  nutrient  ratio  for  beef  being  1 :  7  as 


CATTLE  369 

against  1 : 6  for  milk  production.  That  is  to  say,  that  the 
fattening  animal  should  have  a  balanced  ration  consisting 
of  one  part  protein  food  for  every  seven  parts  of  carbo- 
hydrates and  fats. 

9.     Diseases  of  Cattle 

Tuberculosis  is  a  common  disease  among,  cattle.  It  is 
more  common  among  dairy  cattle  than  beef  cattle.  This  is 
probably  because  dairy  cows  are  kept  to  a  greater  age  than 
beef  cattle,  and  are  more  closely  confined  in  barns.  The 
effects  of  tuberculosis  in  a  dairy  herd  are  (1)  lowered  milk 
production  and  final  loss  of  the  tuberculous  animal  by  death, 
and  (2)  danger  of  giving  the  disease  to  people,  especially 
children  who  use  the  milk. 

Prevalence  of  tuberculosis  in  herds. — There  is  no 
way  of  telling  the  exact  number  of  cattle  affected  by  tuber- 
culosis, as  comparatively  few  herds  are  examined  for  the 
disease.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  as  high  as  seventy  to 
eighty  per  cent,  of  the  cows  in  a  herd  diseased,  some  with 
the  disease  just  starting,  others  with  it  well  along,  and  still 
others  in  the  last  stages.  Since  tuberculosis  is  contagious, 
it  is  evident  that  when  it  once  gets  started  in  a  herd  it  is 
hard  to  stamp  out. 

The  tuberculin  test. — It  is  impossible  to  make  certain 
of  the  presence  or  absence  of  tuberculosis  in  a  herd  by  any 
set  of  S3^mptoms.  The  only  sure  way  is  by  the  tuberculin 
test.  This  test  is  required  by  law  of  all  dairy  herds  in  many 
of  the  states.  Experts  have  shown  that  tuberculin,  if 
properly  used,  will  reveal  the  presence  of  tuberculosis  in  at 
least  ninety-eight  per  cent,  of  the  cases. 

Tuberculin  is  a  fluid  in  which  tubercle  germs  have  been 
grown,  but  from  which  they  have  all  been  removed.  This 
fluid  is  injected  with  a  hypodermic  needle  under  the  skin 


370  AGRICULTURE 

of  all  the  animals  of  a  herd  which  is  being  tested.  It  will 
not  injure  well  animals  nor  give  them  the  disease.  Animals 
that  have  tuberculosis  reveal  this  fact  by  a  feverish 
condition  which  arises  from  eight  to  twelve  hours  after  the 
tuberculin  is  administered.  Well  animals  show  no  such 
reaction. 

Suppressing  tuberculosis  in  cattle. — Little  can  be 
done  in  the  way  of  treatment  to  cure  tuberculosis  in  cattle. 
Those  that  have  contracted  it  in  a  mild  form  often  recover. 
Animals  found  to  be  well  advanced  with  the  disease  should 
at  once  be  slaughtered.  All  diseased  stock  should  be  sep- 
arated from  well  animals,  and  kept  in  different  barns  and 
pastures. 

The  milk  from  mildly  diseased  cows  may  be  used,  pro- 
viding it  is  first  carefully  pasteurized.  To  pasteurize  milk, 
it  is  kept  at  a  temperature  of  one  hundred  and  forty-nine 
degrees  for  twenty  minutes,  or  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
six  degrees  for  five  minutes.  This  heating  is  sufficient  to 
kill  the  germs  of  the  tuberculosis. 

10.     Texas,  or  Tick,  Fever 

A  troublesome  cattle  disease  common  throughout  the 
southern  states  is  tick  fever,  sometimes  called  Texas  fever. 
The  disease  is  caused  by  a  small  animal  parasite  carried  to 
the  affected  animals  by  a  small  tick.  The  parasite  works  in 
the  blood  of  the  animal,  causing  a  high  fever. 

Lross  from  the  Texas  fever  ticks. — Not  only  does  the 
tick  carry  to  the  animal  on  which  it  lives  the  parasite  that 
causes  serious  disease,  but  it  lives  off  the  blood  of  its  host, 
decreases  its  vitality,  and  reduces  the  amount  of  milk  or 
beef  produced.  It  is  estimated  that  the  annual  loss  to  the 
South  from  this  one  species  alone  has  amounted  to  more 
than  forty  million  dollars. 


CATTLE 


371 


Z72  AGRICULTURE 

Freeing  cattle  of  ticks. — Treatment  of  animals  sick 
with  tick  fever  is  usually  .not  satisfactory.  The  remedy  lies 
in  prevention,  which  means  getting  rid  of  the  ticks.  Sev- 
eral methods  are  used  for  freeing  cattle  of  ticks:  (1)  The 
ticks  are  picked  off  by  hand,  or  scraped  off  several  times 
until  the  animals  are  free  from  the  pests.  (2)  The  cattle 
are  sprayed  or  rubbed  with  cottonseed  oil,  fish  oil,  or  a  mix- 
ture of  kerosene  and  oil.  (3)  A  dipping  vat  is  used  con- 
taining a  carefully  prepared  disinfecting  solution.  Care 
must  be  exercised  not  to  pasture  cattle  on  land  infested  with 
ticks. 

Foot-and-mouth  disease. — This  is  a  highly  contagious 
disease  greatly  dreaded  by  farmers.  It  attacks  not  only 
cattle,  but  hogs,  sheep,  horses,  dogs,  cats  and  poultry. 
Human  beings  may  also  take  the  disease,  especially  chil- 
dren who  drink  the  milk  of  diseased  cows.  Men  who  take 
care  of  diseased  stock  have  occasionally  become  affected. 

The  first  symptoms  in  animals  of  the  foot-and-mouth 
disease  are  loss  of  appetite,  and  chills  followed  by  fever. 
In  a  day  or  two  eruptions  the  size  of  a  pea  make  their 
appearance  over  the  linings  of  the  mouth  and  tongue ;  these 
small  vesicles  contain  a  yellowish  watery  liquid.  The  feet 
become  swollen,  sore  and  inflamed.  Eruptions  may  then 
appear  around  the  feet,  and  on  other  parts  of  the  body. 

Foot-and-mouth  disease  is  not  always  fatal,  but  the 
effects  in  loss  of  milk,  the  stoppage  of  growth  and  inter- 
ference with  fattening  for  beef  are  so  serious  that  the  most 
stringent  efforts  are  made  to  check  the  disease  wherever 
it  makes  its  appearance.  Affected  herds  are  often  slaught- 
ered under  the  direction  of  government  officials,  and  the  car- 
casses burned  or  buried.  Rigid  quarantines  are  established, 
and  no  live  stock,  meat,  hides  or  other  animal  products  cap- 
able of  transmitting  the  disease  are  allowed  to  be  shipped 
from  the  territory  affected.    In  1914  and  1915  fifteen  states, 


CATTLE  373 

including  many  dairy  herds  of  large  cities,  were  quarantined 
in  whole  or  in  part  because  of  the  foot-and-mouth  disease. 
To  prevent  contagion,  there  should  be  absolutely  no 
passing  between  diseased  herds  and  other  territory.  Vis- 
itors should  stay  away  from  affected  farms;  dogs  and  cats 
should  not  be  allowed  to  roam  about;  even  birds  such  as 
have  the  habit  of  alighting  in  barnyards  may  carry  the 
germs.  The  pasteurizing  of  milk  renders  it  less  dangerous, 
and  this  precaution  should  never  be  neglected  at  times  and 
places  where  the  foot-and-mouth  disease  prevails. 

11.     Demonstrations,  Related  to   Cattle 

1.  Demonstrate  how  to  make  a  butter- fat  test  with  a 
milk-testing  machine. 

2.  Show  by  the  use  of  the  blackboard  or  chart  a  good 
and  a  poor  dairy  type  of  cow. 

3.  Show  by  drawing  or  chart  a  good  type  of  beef  cat- 
tle. Diagram  the  beef  unit  so  as  to  show  the  various  grades 
and  cuts  of  meat. 

4.  Show  how  to  keep  a  record  of  the  Babcock  test  of 
butter-fat  for  five  cows. 

5.  Demonstrate  how  to  cool  milk  and  cream. 

Other  demonstrations  can  be  carried  on  in  connection 
with  the  cattle  industry,  such  as  butter  making,  cheese  mak- 
ing, showing  the  use  of  milk  in  various  kinds  of  food,  pas- 
teurizing milk,  cleaning  cows,  mixing  various  types  of  feed 
and  making  tuberculin  tests. 

12.     Cattle  Play  Contests 

1.  Cattle  judging  contest. 

2.  Breed  naming  contest. 

3.  Record  keeping  contest. 


374  AGRICULTURE 

4.  Milking  contest. 

5.  Story  writing   contest  on   "Origin  and   History   of 
Cattle"  and  other  subjects. 


13.     Cattle  Club  Projects 

There  are  three  very  practical  and  interesting  club 
projects  possible  in  connection  with  this  subject.  The  first 
and  most  important  perhaps  is  the  dairy  club,  where  club 
members  agree  to  test  for  butter-fat  a  certain  number  of 
dairy  cows  or  the  entire  herd  on  their  father's  farms.  The 
basis  of  award  may  be  as  follows: 

1.  Number  of  cows  tested , 30 

2.  Records   and   helpful    deductions 30 

3.  Skill  in  making  test,  shown  in  demonstration 20 

4.  Essay  "How  To  Make  the  Test,  Its  Importance  to  Dairy- 

Farmers"    20 

Total  score 100 

The  baby  beef  club  project. — The  object  of  this  pro- 
ject is  to  encourage  the  production  of  beef  cattle  and  to 
teach  the  proper  methods  of  management  and  feeding  of 
beef  stock  so  as  to  secure  the  maximum  returns  for  money, 
time  and  energy  expended.  The  baby  beef  club  member 
should  be  required  to  take  a  calf  at  a  certain  age,  a  yearling, 
or  two-year-old,  and  care  for  it,  keeping  a  record  of  all  ex- 
penditures, daily  rations,  and  cost  of  feed  for  six  months 
or  a  year,  with  a  view  to  showing  maximum  results  from 
the  management  for  the  beef  market.  It  is  advisable  as  far 
as  possible  to  have  members  grow  their  own  feed,  or  at  least 
a  part  of  it,  and  to  keep  an  accurate  account  of  the  cost  of 
production  of  this  feed  as  applied  to  the  baby  beef  club 
project  work.   The  basis  of  award  may  be  as  follows : 


GATTLE  375 

1.  Condition  of  beef  at  end  of  period,  judged  by  score-card 

of  beef  standard  cattle 30 

2.  Net  profit  and  cost  of  production 30 

3.  Records  and  story  on  the  club  project 20 

4.  Selection  of  breed  for  beef  purposes 20 

Total  score 100 

Dairy  record  club  project. — The  object  of  this  club 
project  is  first  to  teach  methods  of  keeping  accurate  rec- 
ords of  cost  of  management,  feed,  pastures,  and  milk  pro- 
duction for  each  individual  cow  in  the  dairy  herd,  and 
through  these  records  in  connection  with  the  butter- fat  test 
to  show  the  difference  between  a  profitable  dairy  cow  and 
a  "boarder." 

It  is  possible  to  combine  the  dairy  herd  club  project 
with  the  butter-fat  testing  project.  The  basis  of  award  in 
this  particular  record  keeping  club  project  may  be: 

1.  Number  of  cows  of  which  complete  records  were  kept 30 

2.  Condition  of  records,  neatness,  accuracy,  etc 30 

3.  Conclusions  and  valuable  recommendations 20 

4.  Oral   or   written   discussion   of  "How   I    Kept   My   Rec- 

ords and  Importance  of  Such  Records" 20 

Total  score 100 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
HORSES 

MORE  than  twenty  million  horses  are  to  be  found  on 
the  farms  of  the  United  States.  These  horses  on  the 
farms  alone  are  worth  the  enormous  sum  of  two  and  a 
quarter  billion  dollars,  or  more  than  all  our  cattle,  both 
dairy  and  beef.  The  raising  of  horses  is  therefore  one  of 
the  leading  industries  connected  with  agriculture. 

1.    The  Leading  Horse  Raising  States 

Slightly  more  than  fifty-two  per  cent,  of  all  the  horses 
found  on  the  farms  of  this  country  are  raised  in  the  follow- 
ing ten  states :  Iowa,  Illinois,  Texas,  Kansas,  Missouri,  Ne- 
braska, Ohio,  Indiana,  Minnesota  and  Oklahoma.  The  farms 
of  Iowa  and  Illinois  support  approximately  one  and  one-half 
million  horses  for  each  state;  Texas,  Kansas,  Missouri  and 
Nebraska  have  more  than  a  million  each,  and  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Minnesota  and  Oklahoma,  more  than  three-fourths  of  a 
million  each. 

Proportion  supplied  by  each  state. — ^The  proportion 
of  all  the  horses  found  on  our  farms  which  is  supplied  by 
each  of  these  ten  leading  horse  states  is  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing chart: 

Iowa  7.05% 

Illinois  7.0% 

Texas  5.5% 

Kansas  5.0% 

Missouri  5.0% 

Nebraska  5.0% 

Ohio  4.4% 

Indiana  4.2% 

Minnesota  4.1% 

Oklahoma  ^     3.7% 

376 


HORSES  377 

Horses  are  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  climates,  and  can 
be  successfully  produced  in  every  state.  The  market  for 
horses  is  good  and,  under  skilful  management,  they  can  be 
be  raised  with  profit  on  almost  all  farms. 

1.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  horses  on  your  farm,  and 
have  your  father  help  you  estimate  the  value  of  each.  Now 
compare  the  value  of  your  horses  with  the  value  of  your 
cattle;  your  hogs;  your  sheep. 

2.  After  each  member  of  the  class  has  made  the  com- 
putation asked  in  No.  1,  put  all  the  results  together  and 
make  similar  comparisons  for  the  value  of  different  farm 
stock  for  all  farms  represented.  Compare  the  relative  val- 
ues of  horses,  cattle  and  hogs  for  your  region  with  the  rela- 
tive values  of  these  animals  for  the  entire  country,  taking 
the  necessary  figures  from  the  respective  chapters  of  this 
book. 

2.     Classes  of  Horses 

Class  and  grade. — Regardless  of  breed,  horses  are 
classed  in  the  markets  according  to  the  uses  to  which  they 
are  suited.  The  different  classes  are :  draft  horses,  chunks, 
wagon  horses,  carriage  horses,  road  horses,  saddle  horses 
and  ponies.  Animals  are  graded  within  each  class  as  choice, 
good,  medium,  common  and  inferior.  The  class  to  which 
a  horse  belongs  depends  on  (1)  weight,  (2)  height,  and 
(3)  conformation,  or  build,  and  (4)  quality. 

Draft  horses. — To  be  in  the  draft  class  a  horse  in 
good,  flesh  must  weigh  from  one  thousand  six  hundred 
pounds  to  more  than  a  ton.  The  height  ranges  from  15-2 
to  17-3  hands.  The  form  of  draft  horses  is  broad,  com- 
pact and  rugged,  with  legs  short  as  compared  with  the 
depth  of  the  body.  This  build  brings  the  weight  close  to 
the  ground,  where  it  can  exert  the  greatest  power  in  draw- 
ing a  load.  Draft  horses  are  used  largely  for  city  teaming, 
for  logging  and  the  like. 


378 


AGRICULTURE 


Chunks. — The  form  of  this  class  of  horses  is  indicated 
by  their  name.  Chunks  are  heavy-set,  short  legged,  com- 
pactly built  horses,  of  lighter  weight  than  draft  horses. 
Their  weight  varies  from  eight  hundred  pounds  among  the 
lightest  of  the  southern  chunks  to  one  thousand  five  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds  in  the  North  and  East.    The  height  is  from 


A  pair  of  draft  horses. 


15  to  15-3  hands.     The  typical  farm  horse  belongs  to  the 
chunk  class. 

Wagon  horses. — Wagon  horses  are  required  to  com- 
bine weight  with  action  and  endurance.  City  delivery  and 
express,  fire  and  artillery  horses  are  selected  from  this 
class.  They  must  have  sound  feet ;  strong  clean  legs ;  broad 
deep  chests ;  and  show  good  constitution  and  quality.  Their 
weight  is  from  one  thousand  and  fifty  pounds  to  one  thou- 


HORSES 


379 


A  fine  type  of  draft  horse. 


A  good  pair  of  chunks,  and  their  offspring  by  pure-bred  sires. 


380  AGRICULTURE 

sand  seven  hundred  pounds ;  and  their  height  from  15  to 
17-2  hands. 

Carriage  horses. — ^The  carriage,  or  heavy  harness, 
class  are  required  to  have  good  action,  a  fair  amount  of 
speed,  and  to  be  of  an  elegant  form  and  carriage. 
The  head  should  be  small,  and  well-set,  on  a  long  arching 
neck.  The  body  should  be  smooth  and  rounded,  the  back 
short  and  well  coupled,  with  a  long  level  croup,  and  the 


A  good  le.iiii  uf  heavy  eaiTiage  horses,  showing  fine  character 
and  action. 

hindquarters  strong  and  well  developed.  The  height  ranges 
from  14-1  to  16-2  hands,  and  the  weight  from  nine  hundred 
pounds  to  one  thousand  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds. 
The  carriage  class  supply  the  coach,  park  and  cab 
horses. 

Road  horses. — Road  or  light  harness  horses  are 
lighter  in  build,  more  angular  in  form,  and  possess  better 
action  than  the  carriage  class.  They  must  have  good  speed, 
life  and  quality.  They  are  used  for  light  and  fancy  driving, 
and  for  racing.    Their  weight  is  from  nine  hundred  to  one 


HORSES  381 

thousand  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  and  their  height 
from  14-3  to  16  hands. 

Saddle  horses. — Saddle  horses  are  built  for  ease  of 
action,  strength  and  sureness  of  foot.  They  are  also  re- 
quired to  have  mettle,  coupled  with  a  good  disposition  and 
intelligence.  The  withers  are  high  and  thin,  and  the  shoul- 
ders oblique.  The  back  must  be  short,  well  muscled,  and 
strongly  coupled,  and  the  gait  easy.  The  height  runs  from 
fourteen  hands  for  polo  ponies  to  sixteen  hands  for  hunters 
or  cavalry  horses.  The  weight  may  vary  from  eight  hun- 
dred and  fifty  to  twelve  hundred  and  fifty  pounds. 

Ponies. — Ponies  are  chiefly  used  for  children,  and 
must  therefore  first  of  all  have  good  dispositions.  To  be 
in  the  pony  class,  the  height  must  be  under  fourteen  hands. 
The  body  is  deep  and  well  rounded,  the  legs  and  neck  are 
short,  the  croup  is  level,  and  the  quarters  are  strong  and  well 
developed. 

These  different  classes  of  horses  often  merge  into  one 
another  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  tell  in  which  of  two  classes  a 
certain  animal  belongs.  For  market  purposes  it  pays  to 
breed  for  well  marked  classes,  as  these  always  bring  higher 
prices  than  mixed  stock. 

1.  Study  each  horse  on  your  home  farm,  and  decide 
the  class  to  which  it  belongs.  If  the  type  is  not  clearly 
marked  in  any  case,  decide  what  two  classes  it  resembles. 

2.  Also  grade  each  horse  as  choice,  good,  medium,  com- 
mon, or  inferior  in  its  class.  Remember  that  to  be  ''choice" 
the  animal  must  be  entirely  sound,  in  good  condition,  and 
possess  in  the  highest  degree  the  ideal  qualities  of  its  class. 
The  ''inferior"  grade  is  the  very  worst  of  its  class.  The 
other  grades  lie  in  between  these  two  extremes. 

3.     Breeds  of  Horses 
While   the  breed   to   which   a   horse  belongs   has   little 
bearing  on  its  market  value  if  the  class  marks  are  strong 


382  AGRICULTURE 

and  the  grade  high,  yet  the  only  way  to  secure  class  and 
grade  is  by  pure  breeding.  Millions  of  dollars  are  being 
lost  by  American  farmers  every  year  through  the  breed- 
ing of  grade  or  scrub  horses. 

The  value  o£  breeding. — An  excellent  illustration  of 
the  difference  in  market  value  between  pure-bred  and  grade- 
bred  horses  is  shown  in  the  case  of  Wisconsin  horses  (Bui. 
186,  Wis.  Ag.  Exp.  Sta.)  : 

Average  value  of  horses  by  ages 


4  to  6 
months  1  year     2  years    3  years    4  years 


From  pure-bred  sires__-$78.77  $132.84  $196.84  $218.00  $303.00 

Froln  grade  sires 51.25  85.00  127.50  156.45  200.20 

Difference    in    favor    of 

pure-bred  sires 27.52  47.84  59.34  61.55  102.80 

This  table  is  very  convincing  when  it  is  remembered 
that  it  costs  no  more  in  care  and  feed  to  raise  a  well-bred 
horse  than  a  scrub.  The  farmer  who  uses  only  pure-bred 
sires  for  his  breeding  will  get  almost  fifty  dollars  more  for 
his  colts  as  yearlings  than  if  he  uses  grade  sires,  while  if  he 
does  not  sell  until  the  colt  has  reached  maturity  he  will 
receive  at  least  one  hundred  dollars  more.  If  pure-bred 
dams  are  also  used,  the  difference  will  be  greater  still.  Will 
it  not  pay  well  to  "breed  up"  our  horses  ? 

Draft  breeds. — The  chief  breeds  of  draft  horses  in  the 
United  States  have  been  imported  from  Europe.  The  fa- 
vorite of  these  is  the  Percheron,  which  comes  from  France. 
The  Percherons  have  good  spirit,  are  strong-boned,  and 
have  sound  feet.  They  show  good  action,  have  a  high 
degree  of  intelligence,  and  respond  well  to  training. 

The  Clydesdales  come  from  Scotland.  They  are  longer 
in  build  than  Percherons,  have  smaller  bodies,  and  less  rug- 
ged constitutions.     They  are  strongly  marked  by  a  heavy 


HORSES 


383 


growth  of  hair  on  the  lower  part  of  the  leg,  especially  at 
the  fetlock.  For  use  in  wet  and  muddy  times  this  excess 
of  hair  is  a  disadvantage,  since  it  is  hard  to  keep  dry  and 
clean. 

The  Belgians  come  to  us  from  Belgium,  and  the  English 
Shires  from  England.     Both  are  excellent  breeds,  though 


A  good  saddle  horse. 


they  have  not  yet  come  into  the  favor  enjoyed  by  the  Per- 
cherons,  or  even  the  Clydesdales. 

It  is  chiefly  from  the  heavier  breeds  that  come  all  our 
draft  horses,  chunks,  wagon  horses,  carriage,  or  heavy 
harness  horses.  A  comparatively  small  proportion  of  horses 
in  any  of  these  classes  is  as  yet  pure  bred,  most  of  them  be- 
ing a  cross  with  grade  or  common  stock. 

26 


384 


AGRICULTURE 


The  lighter  breeds. — Relatively  few  farmers  have 
undertaken  the  raising  of  the  lighter  and  speedier  breeds  of 
horses.  This  has  been  left  to  special  breeders  and  stock 
farms  that  make  a  specialty  of  horses.  The  heavier  breeds 
are  better  adapted  to  the  farm,  since  the  dams  can  then  be 


Typical  of  the  American  trotter  breed. 


used  for  general  farm  work,  and  thus  serve  a  double  pur- 
pose and  thereby  add  to  the  profit. 

Among  the  lighter  breeds   raised  in  this  country,  the 
English  Hackney,  the  French  Coach,  and  the  German  Coach 


are  the  favorites  for  the  carriage  class. 


For  lighter  road 


HORSES  385 


use  the  breeds  most  favored  are  the  American  Trotter,  the 
American  Saddle  horse  and  the  English  Thoroughbred. 


4.     Jtido-ino:  Horses 


ii 


The  horse  is  to  many  people  the  most  interesting  animal 
on  the  farm.  The  satisfaction  and  profit  from  horse  raising 
depend  very  largely  on  the  breed,  class  and  grade.  For 
these  reasons  all  v^ho  are  interested  in  farm  animals  should 
learn  to  judge  horses  readily  and  accurately. 

The  score-card. — Before  undertaking  to  use  the  score- 
card  in  actual  judging,  the  pupil  must  become  thoroughly 
familiar  with  all  its  points,  understanding  fully  the  re- 
quirements for  a  perfect  score  under  any  point.  With  this 
ideal  in  mind,  the  animal  is  to  be  examined,  and  the  score 
put  down  on  the  card.  Do  not  be  afraid  to  mark  off  for 
all  bad  points.  It  takes  a  good  animal  to  grade  eighty  per 
cent,  when  marked  by  a  trained  judge,  and  an  exceptional 
one  to  grade  ninety  per  cent.  Judges  do  not  usually  mark 
closer  than  one-fourth  per  cent,  on  any  point. 

5.    Common  Defects  and  Unsoundness  in  Horses 

Any  defect  or  unsoundness  lowers  the  value  of  a  horse. 
All  who  have  to  do  with  horses  should  be  able  to  identify 
the  more  common  faults,  and  know  their  causes.  (See  Pur- 
due  Circidar,  No.  29.) 

Defects  of  head,  eyes  and  ears — 

1.  Poll  evil;  sore  on  top  of  head,  caused  by  bruises. 

2.  Blindness;  either  with  or  without  defects  of  eyeball. 

3.  "Blue-eyed";  a  peculiar  bluish  color,  may  indicate  blind- 

ness. 

4.  Over-mobile  ears;  showing  viciousness  or  blindness. 

5.  Immobile  ears;  showing  deafness  or  lockjaw. 


386  AGRICULTURE 

Defects  of  the  mouth — 

1.  Nose    discharge;    indicating    catarrh,    glanders,    diseased 

molars. 

2.  Bit  sores,  showing  tender  mouth,  or  abuse. 

3.  Diseased  molars;  affect  health  and  interfere  with  eating. 

4.  "Parrot"  mouth;  upper  jaw  too  long,  front  teeth  project 

over  lower. 

5.  Undershot  jaw;  lower  jaw  short;  front  teeth  do  not  meet. 

6.  Clipped  tongue;  tip  cut  off  to  prevent  lolling. 

Defects  of  neck,  withers  and  shoulders — 

1.  Neck  sores;  caused  by  collar  wear  on  top  of  neck. 

2.  Fistula;  running  sore  on  withers  on  shoulders. 

3.  Collar  sores  and  boils;  dirty  and  ill-fitting  collars. 

Defects  of  feet  and  legs — 

1.  Shoe  boil;  sore  at  elbow  from  injury  by  shoe  while  lying 

down;  also  sore  from  harness  band. 

2.  Splint;  (desoribe.) 

3.  Broken  knee;  bent  backward  from  injury. 

4.  Buck  knee;  bent  forward  from  stiffening  of  tendons. 

5.  Capped  knee;  (what  is  meant?) 

6.  Greased  heel;  sores  which  refuse  to  heal. 

7.  Scratches;  sores  under  fetlocks  from  filth  or  dampness. 

8.  Windgalls;  puffs  around  fetlock  joint  from  hard  driving 

or  standing  on  hard  floors. 

9.  Cocked  ankles;  ankles  bent  forward  from  misuse. 

10.  Navicular  disease;  contracted  foot,  favored' in  action. 

11.  Toe  cracks;  transverse  checks  across  the  hoof. 

12.  Quarter  racks;  split  in  hoof  extending  up  to  heel. 

13.  Corns;  (what?  where?)  (describe  cause.) 

14.  Thrush;   usually   caused   from    standing   in    damp,    filthy 

stalls. 

15.  Knocked-down  hip;   one  hip  lower  than  the  other  from 

blow. 

16.  Spavin;  either  bog,  or  bone,  indicating  sprain  or  injury. 

17.  Thorough-pin;  (describe  cause.) 

18.  Curb;  enlargement  at  back  of  hock  from  sprain. 

General  defects — 

1.  St.   Vitus's   Dance;   twitching  of  muscles. 

2.  Crampness;  tendency  for  muscles  to  cramp. 

3.  Springhalt;  one  or  both  hind  feet  lifted  too  high. 


HORSES  387 

4.  Roaring;  a  wheezing-,  roaring  sound  in  breathing;  from 

bad  wind. 

5.  Heaves;  spasmodic  breathing. 

Vices — 

1.  Cribbing;  habit  of  biting  mangers,  posts,  etc.,  caused  by- 

teeth  trouble. 

2.  Windsucking;  habit  of  biting,  and  at  the  same  time  suck- 

ing in  air. 

3.  Halter  pulling;  habit  of  pulling  back  when  tied. 

4.  Biting;  vicious  tendency  to  bite  people  or  other  horses. 

5.  Balking;  refusing  to  move  when  commanded. 

6.  Rolling  in  stall;  likely  to  become  "cast"  and  cause  In- 

jury. 

7.  Kicking;  showing  vicious  temper. 

8.  Striking;  with  front  feet  to  injure  attendant. 

6.    The  Care  of  Horses 

The  horse  is  the  most  intelligent  and  companionable  of 
the  farm  animals.  It  quickly  shows  the  effects  of  ill  treat- 
ment or  lack  of  care  and,  on  the  other  hand,  easily  responds 
to  training  and  good  usage. 

Unsoundness  due  to  ill  usage. — Not  a  few  of  the 
defects  common  to  horses  should  be  blamed  to  their  own- 
ers or  users.  For  example,  poll  evil  is  frequently  caused  by 
striking  the  head  against  a  door  or  stall  beam  that  is  too 
low.  Bit  sores  indicate  either  a  careless  or  a  cruel  driver,  or 
a  bit  unsuited  to  the  horse  on  which  it  is  used.  Neck  and 
shoulder  sores  seldom  occur  if  the  collar  is  a  good  fit,  and  if 
kept  clean.  Fistula  on  withers  on  shoulders  comes  from 
collar  bruises.  Sweeny  is  the  result  of  a  wrench  or  strain, 
often  due  to  ill-fitting  collars. 

In  similar  way,' splints,  spavins,  curbs,  thorough-pins  and 
other  injuries  to  the  legs  are  often  caused  by  excessive  driv- 
ing or  pulling,  especially  of  young  horses.  Misshapen  knees 
and  ankles  are  an  evidence  of  hard  usage.     Greased  heel. 


388 


AGRICULTURE 


thrush  and  scratches  come  from  damp  and  filthy  stalls. 
Roaring  is  the  result  of  driving  until  the  wind  is  "broken" ; 
heaves  usually  come  from  eating  dusty  feed;  cribbing  is  a 
sign  of  the  neglect  of  teeth  that  need  attention. 

The  effect  of  training. — The  vices  which  reduce  the 


A  typical  Perclieron. 


value  of  many  horses  and  make  them  unpleasant  to  handle 
are  usually  due  more  to  training  than  disposition.  Halter 
pulling  commonly  begins  in  the  colt  being  frightened 
and  made  to  break  loose  when  tied,  or  else  being  tied  with 
an  old  and  easily  broken  halter  that  encourages  pulling  on 
it.    Balking  often  indicates  lack  of  intelligence  and  patience 


HORSES  389 

on  the  part  of  the  trainer  fully  as  much  as  stubbornness  on 
the  part  of  the  horse.  Biting  may  be  started  by  teas- 
ing; and  kicking  often  has  its  beginning  in  fright  from 
something  loose  about  the  harness  or  vehicle  before  the  colt 
is  well  broken. 

Treatment  of  horses. — The  horse  should  be  treated 
with  kindness  and  firmness.  The  driver  who  strikes  or 
jerks  because  of  his  anger  or  petulance  deserves  the  con- 
tempt of  all  lovers  of  animal  life,  and  should  not  be  en- 
trusted with  horses.  One  who  will  work  a  team  in  the 
heat  and  dust  and  then  allow  them  to  stand  over  night  with- 
out cleaning  shows  either  lack  of  intelligence  about  horses  or 
cruelty.  To  drive  a  team  until  they  are  sweaty  and  then 
allow  them  to  stand  in  a  cold  wind  unblanketed  reveals  not 
only  heartlessness  but  bad  business  management. 

The  horse  can  not  be  taught  like  a  person.  Therefore, 
only  one  single  word  of  command  should  ever  be  used  for 
the  same  act.  Whoa  should  always  mean  an  immediate  and 
dead  stop ;  back  should  mean  to  step  backward,  and  not 
merely  to  stop.  Some  one  signal  alone  should  be  used  to 
start,  and  the  horse  never  allowed  to  start  without  this  sig- 
nal. Care  in  such  simple  points  as  these  would  result  in 
much  better  broken  and  safer  horses. 

7.    Feeding  Horses 

The  feeding  of  farm  work  horses  is  a  different  prob- 
lem from  the  feeding  of  most  other  farm  stock.  This  is 
because  the  horse  is  fed  for  work,  while  other  animals  are 
fed  for  meat,  milk,  eggs  and  so  on. 

The  ration  for  horses. — The  ordinary  farm  ration  for 
working  horses  is  some  form  of  hay  for  roughage,  and 
one  or  more  cereals,  such  as  oats  or  com.  The  particular 
kind  of  hay  fed  is  not  important,  so  that  it  is  in  good  con- 


390  AGRICULTURE 

dition  and  free  from  dust.  If  dusty  hay  must  be  used,  it 
should  be  sprinkled  with  water  as  it  is  fed.  Horses  seem 
to  find  timothy  hay  more  palatable  than  most  other  kinds, 
but  red  clover,  alfalfa,  meadow  fescue  and  other  grasses 
have  been  found  satisfactory.  It  is  thought  that  less  grain 
is  necessary  to  keep  up  the  weight  of  horses  at  hard  work 
when  alfalfa  is  fed  instead  of  some  other  hay. 

Grain  ration  for  farm  horses. — Oats  are  the  choice  of 
the  cereals  for  horses  wherever  they  are  obtainable.  They 
are  relished  better  than  most  grains,  and  seem  especially 
suited  to  the  horse  as  a  nutrient.  Horses  fed  on  oats  also 
seem  to  show  better  mettle  than  those  fed  on  other  grains. 

In  the  corn  producing  region  corn  is  usually  a  more 
economical  feed  for  horses  than  oats,  and  has  therefore 
come  into  quite  general  use  as  a  part  of  the  ration.  Corn 
and  alfalfa  hay  make  a  satisfactory  ration,  at  least  for  a 
limited  time,  and  are  cheaper  than  oats  and  timothy  hay. 
A  very  satisfactory  and  rather  heavy  daily  ration  for  a 
horse  weighing  from  one  thousand  two  hundred  to  one 
thousand  three  hundred  pounds,  and  employed  at  general 
farm  labor  is : 

IVz  pounds  of  whole  corn. 
7^  pounds  of  whole  oats. 
1       pound     of  oil  meal. 
3       pounds  of  wheat  bran. 
7^  pounds  of  timothy  hay. 
IVi  pounds  of  clover  hay. 

Other  rations  that  have  been  proved  satisfactory  by  ex- 
periment are  as  follows : 

.  1.     Corn,  6  pounds;  gluten  feed,  6  pounds;  bran,  2  pounds; 
timothy  hay,  10  pounds. 

2.  Corn,  8  pounds;  bran,  7  pounds;  timothy  hay,  10  pounds. 

3.  Oats,  6  pounds;  corn,  4  pounds;  bran,  2  pounds;  hay,  12 

pounds. 


HORSES 


391 


These  rations  are  the  amount  that  should  be  fed  daily 
to  a  horse  at  regular  work  and  weighing  from  one  thousand 
two  hundred  to  one  thousand  three  hundred  pounds  when  at 
work.  Larger  horses  should  receive  more,  and  smaller 
horses  less,  according  to  weight.  It  is  also  to  be  noted  that 
some  horses  require  more  feed  than  others  of  the  same 
weight. 


A  horse  market,  showing  a  type  of  horse  for  which  there  is  a 
great  demand. 


How  to  feed. — For  horses  with  good  teeth  it  is  not 
essential  whether  the  grain  is  ground  or  fed  whole,  except 
that  the  same  amount  will  yield  somewhat  more  nourish- 
ment if  ground.  This  difference  may  sometimes  be  as  much 
as  one  per  cent,  in  favor  of  ground  feed.  On  days  when 
work  horses  are  allowed  to  stand  idle  the  amount  of  grain 
should  be  reduced  about  one-half.     If  the  idleness  contin- 


392  AGRICULTURE 

ues  beyond  three  or  four  days,  the  amount  of  grain  may 
gradually  be  increased,  but  should  not  reach  the  full  work 
ration. 

Most  of  the  hay  should  be  fed  at  night  and  in  the  morn- 
ing, as  there  is  not  enough  time  at  noon  to  secure  the  neces- 
sary nourishment  from  roughage.  The  noon  feed  of  grain 
may  be  slightly  heavier  than  that  for  night  or  morning. 
About  twice  as  long  is  required  for  horses  to  eat  ground 
grain  fed  dry  as  when  it  is  dampened. 

Watering  horses. — Much  difference  of  opinion  exists 
concerning  the  best  time  for  watering  horses,  some  prefer- 
ring to  water  before  feeding,  and  others  after.  Careful  ex- 
periments have  shown  that  the  time  of  watering  is  not  highly 
important.  If  horses  come  from  the  field  thirsty,  it  is  rea- 
sonable to  suppose  that  they  will  relish  their  meal  better  if 
they  have  had  a  drink.  If  the  feed  consists  largely  of  dry 
roughage  it  also  seems  best  to  water  before  feeding.  What- 
ever system  is  adopted  should  be  followed  regularly,  as 
changing  about  often  injures  the  appetite  or  produces  some 
other  derangement.  Horses  should  never  be  given  a  large 
amount  of  water  when  highly  heated  from  working  or 
driving. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  What  breeds  of  horses  are  favored  in  your  region? 
Let  each  student  find  out  just  what  breeds  are  represented 
in  the  horses  on  his  home  farm,  with  the  percentage  of 
pure-bred  blood  in  each  animal.  Sum  up  the  results  for  the 
entire  district. 

2.  If  it  costs  fifteen  dollars  more  to  sire  from  pure-bred 
than  grade  horses,  what  would  be  the  net  gain  by  using 
pure-bred  rather  than  grade  sires  in  raising  for  market  two 
teams  and  selling  them  at  four  years  of  age  on  the  basis 
shown  in  the  table  on  page  382.  • 

3.  After    studying   the    score-card    for    judging    draft 


HORSES  393 

horses  and  judging  one  or  more  animals  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  teacher,  judge  independently  at  least  two  other 
horses,  having  your  work  tested  and  criticized  by  the 
teacher  or  other  competent  judge. 

4.  Master  thoroughly  the  list  of  defects  common  to 
horses,  and  then  watch  for  an  example  of  each  on  dif- 
ferent animals  until  you  have  learned  to  identify  any  un- 
soundness at  sight.  Examine  carefully  each  horse  at  your 
home  for  unsoundness. 

5.  Write  a  detailed  account  of  the  care  that  should  be 
given  a  working  team  each  day,  including  stall,  feeding, 
watering,  cleaning,  blanketing,  and  so  on. 

6.  Weigh  the  ordinary  daily  ration  or  feed  given  to  one 
of  your  working  horses  and  compare  with  the  rations  sug- 
gested on  page  390.  At  current  prices,  just  what  does  it 
cost  a  day  to  feed  one  of  your  work  horses  ? 

7.  Show  how  to  keep  a  bookkeeping  record  of  the 
cost  of  keeping,  feeding,  and  use  of  a  team  of  heavy  draft 
horses  for  farm  purposes,  covering  a  period  of  six  months 
through  the  working  season. 

8.  Show  upon  the  map  of  the  United  States  the  ap- 
proximate number  of  horses  in  each  state.  Secure  records 
from  the  last  census  report  on  horses.  Where  were  the 
wild  horses  originally  found  ?  Where  are  horses  now  raised 
extensively  on  farms  and  ranges? 


8.     Demonstrations  With  Horses 

1.  Demonstrate  how  to  halter-break  a  colt. 

2.  The  proper  method  of  judging  a  horse. 

3.  Show  how  to  handle  a  buggy  horse;  harness,  hitch 
and  start. 

4.  Demonstrate  the  proper  method  of  mounting  a  sad- 
dle horse,  with  and  without  the  saddle. 

5.  The  proper  method  of  currying  a  horse,  training  the 
mane,  and  tying  up  the  tail  for  muddy  roads. 

6.  Demonstrate   miscellaneous    interests   in   horseman- 
ship.    In  this  particular  case  contestants  may  be  allowed 


394  AGRICULTURE 

to  bring  their  own  horses  and  demonstrate  values  and  tricks 
such  as  prompt  obedience  to  master's  command,  and  pe- 
culiar and  valuable  traits  of  their  animals. 

7.  Demonstrate  the  practical  rope  knots  and  splicings 
of  especial  value  in  the  handling  of  horses,  such  as  the  hal- 
ter-hitch, clove-hitch,  slipknot  and  timber-hitch.  (See  pages 
491-497.) 

8.  Demonstrate  how  to  harness  and  hitch  a  team  to  a 
double  wagon. 

All  of  the  above  demonstrations  should  not  only  show 
skill,  accuracy  and  speed,  but  kindness  in  the  handling  of 
the  horses. 

9.      The  Play  Contests  With  Horses 

1.  Horse  mounting  contest,  judged  by  skill,  largest 
number  of  mountings  in  five  minutes  and  showing  of  kind- 
ness to  animal  in  mounting. 

2.  Horse  judging  contest,  driving  contest  in  single, 
double,  or  four-horse  team. 

3.  Oral  story,  giving  the  life  history  of  the  horse. 

4.  Essay  writing  contest  on  the  subject:  "The  Horse 
and  Its  Relation  to  Agriculture." 

5.  Recipe  and  remedy  giving  contest,  showing  the 
proper  methods  of  treatment  for  unsoundness,  defects,  blem- 
ishes and  vices  of  the  horse. 

6.  Oral  or  written  contest  in  giving  description  of  de- 
fects and  blemishes  and  statement  as  to  causes. 

10.     Colt  Club  Project 

The  object  of  organizing  a  colt  club  is  to  get  boys  and 
girls  interested  in  the  raising  and  proper  management  of 
colts  as  an  economic  factor  on  the  farm.     The  work  should 


HORSES  395 

cover  a  period  of  from  nine  to  twelve  months  in  the  man- 
agement, feeding  and  keeping  of  records  of  a  colt.  The 
basis  of  award  may  be  as  follows : 

1.  Management  shown  by  training  of  colt 25 

2.  The  cost  of  keeping 25 

3.  Condition  of  the  colt  at  end  of  period 25 

4.  Story  of  "My  Year's  Work  with  the  Colt" 25 

Total  score 100 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
SWINE 

HOGS  outrank  every  other  farm  animal  in  number  in  the 
United  States,  and  are  exceeded  in  value  only  by 
horses  and  cattle.  There  are  more  than  sixty  million  hogs 
on  our  farms,  or  nearly  two  porkers  for  every  three  of  the 
population.  The  aggregate  market  value  of  swine  is  about 
two-thirds  that  of  dairy  cattle,  and  not  far  from  equal  to 
the  value  of  beef  cattle.  American  farmers  own  more  than 
six  hundred  million  dollars'  worth  of  hogs. 

1.    The  Pork  Producing  Region 

A  large  proportion  of  our  hogs  is  produced  in  the 
states  forming  the  corn  belt.  This  is  natural,  since  corn 
is  one  of  the  cheapest  and  best  grains  for  raising  pork. 
Many  other  regions  can  grow  hogs  as  successfully  as  the 
corn  states,  however,  and  the  industry  is  spreading. 

Hogs  in  the  South. — Southern  farmers  have  not  yet 
entered  very  largely  upon  the  raising  of  hogs,  though  they 
can  be  produced  as  cheaply  in  the  South  as  in  the  North. 
The  southern  people  consume  more  meat  per  capita  than  the 
people  of  any  other  section.  Alillions  of  pounds  of  fresh 
meats  are  annually  shipped  to  southern  markets  from  north- 
ern and  western  farms.  This  means  a  double  loss  to  the 
South.  For  money  is  paid  out  for  what  could  well  be  raised 
at  home,  and  a  most  profitable  industry  is  thus  neglected  on 
the  southern  farms. 

396 


SWINE  397 

The  leading  states  in  hog  production. — Sixty  per  cent, 
of  all  our  pork  is  raised  in  ten  states.  In  the  order  of  their 
importance  in  pork  production  these  states  are:  Iowa,  Illi- 
nois, Missouri,  Nebraska,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Kansas,  Texas, 
Wisconsin,  Georgia.  The  percentage  that  each  of  these 
states  supply  of  all  hogs  produced  in  the  United  States  is 
shown  in  the  following  chart : 

Iowa  13.4% 

Illinois  7.5% 

Missouri  <S!7^o 

Nebraska  6.2% 

Indiana  6.1% 

Ohio  5.2% 

Kansas  4.3% 

Texas  4.1% 

Wisconsin  7i.7i% 

Georgia  3.1% 

The  number  of  swine  in  these  states  runs  from  about 
two  million  in  Georgia  to  nine  million  in  Iowa. 

2.     Breeds  of  Hogs 

Many  of  our  important  breeds  of  cattle  and  horses  orig- 
inated in  Europe,  but  we  have  ourselves  developed  nearly 
all  our  chief  breeds  of  hogs.  The  breeds  most  favored  in 
the  United  States  are  Poland-China,  Duroc-Jersey,  Ches- 
ter-White and  Berkshire.  The  Berkshire,  the  only  imported 
breed,  came  from  England.  Other  less  well-known  breeds 
are  the  Yorkshire,  Cheshire,  Suffolk,  Hampshire  and  Essex. 

Poland-China. — Poland-China  has  long  been  a  favorite 
breed  of  hogs,  especially  in  the  corn  states.  They  are  black 
in  color,  with  irregular  white  markings  on  almost  every 
part  of  the  body.  The  ears  are  drooping.  The  Poland- 
Chinas  make  a  rapid  growth,  and  reach  good  size.  They 
are  rather  small  of  bone,  and  not  so  good  foragers  as  some 


398  AGRICULTURE 

other  breeds.     Some  fault  has  been  found  with  them  for 
not  producing  larger  litters. 

Duroc-Jersey. — The  Duroc-Jerseys  are  easily  recog- 
nized by  their  reddish  color.  They  are  one  of  the  most 
prolific  and  vigorous  breeds,  somewhat  slow  in  develop- 
ing, and  strong  of  frame.  Their  bones  are  large,  and 
they  reach  good  size  and  weight.    They  have  large  droop- 


A  fine  Duroc-Jersey  sow. 

ing  ears,  are  good  foragers,  and  thrive  well  on  pasturage, 
or  when  following  a  herd  of  fattening  cattle. 

Chester-White. — The  Chester-White  breed  are  of 
large  frame,  rather  slow  in  maturing,  and  possess  good 
constitutions.  They  are  white  without  markings,  and  have 
drooping  ears.  They  are  raised  more  in  New  England  than 
in  the  corn  region. 


SWINE 


399 


A  Cbester- White  sow  iu  show  condition. 


'27 


A  Berkshire. 


400  AGRICULTURE 

Berkshire.^Berkshires  resemble  the  Poland-China 
breed  in  color  and  markings,  being  black  with  white  mark- 
ings. They  may  be  distinguished  by  their  erect  ears.  They 
have  a  compact  frame,  are  good  feeders,  and  make  a  quicker 
growth  than  most  other  breeds.  The  Berkshire  has  long 
been  a  favorite  breed,  especially  throughout  the  Middle 
West  and  is  fast  becoming  the  favorite  in  the  southern 
states. 

3.     The  Care  of  Hogs 

Pigs  are  generally  considered  not  so  cleanly  in  their 
habits  as  some  other  farm  animals.  A  fact  made  possible 
because  of  neglect  of  owners.  Consequently  many  farmers 
think  that  it  does  not  matter  how  they  are  kept.  Nothing 
could  be  a  greater  mistake.  Hogs  thrive  only  under  hygi- 
enic conditions  of  feeding  and  housing.  Millions  of  dollars 
are  thrown  away  every  year  by  failure  to  give  hogs  the 
care  they  require. 

Need  of  good  housing. — Hogs  are  the  most  poorly 
housed  of  our  farm  animals.  Any  kind  of  place  is  thought 
good  enough  for  them  on  many  farms.  Yet  hogs  are  far 
more  sensitive  to  cold  than  horses  or  cattle,  which  have 
thick  fur  coats  to  protect  them,  while  the  hog  has  almost 
none.  Hogs  lie  down  more  than  most  animals,  and  need  a 
better  bed.  They  live  close  to  the  ground,  and  easily  breathe 
in  dust  and  impurities.  They  need  sunshine  more  than  do 
horses  and  cattle,  yet  little  is  provided  for  them. 

Hogs  take  cold  very  easily.  Little  pigs,  especially,  need 
to  be  kept  warm,  dry  and  away  from  drafts,  if  they  are  not 
to  have  their  growth  checked,  or  even  lose  their  lives  by 
catching  cold.  Neglect  of  these  simple  rules  indicates  shift- 
less farming,  and  causes  great  loss. 

Hog-houses. — Every  farm  that  makes  a  business  of 
raising  pigs  will  find  a  well-built  hog-house  a  paying  invest- 


SWINE 


401 


ment.  The  most  economical  and  convenient  hog-house  has 
a  row  of  pens  along  each  side  of  a  central  alley  which,  in 
larger  buildings,  should  be  wide  enough  to  drive  through. 
This  allows  the  hauling  in  of  straw  for  bedding,  and  corn 
or  slops  for  feeding,  thereby  saving  much  labor.  It  also 
provides  for  the  easy  removing  of  manure. 

The  separate  pens  should  be  from  five  to  eight  feet  wide, 
and  from  eight  to  twelve  feet  long,  depending  on  the  use  to 


g 

MM 

lyp 

1 

tt 

ii 

^n^ 

1 

An  excellent  type  of  hog-house  with  outdoor  pens. 

be  made  of  them.  Pens  for  brood  sows  need  not  be  larger 
than  eight  by  ten  feet.  If  feeding  is  to  be  done  in  the 
pens  they  should  be  larger,  or,  better  still,  the  partitions 
should  be  removable.  The  floor  may  be  of  cement,  though 
for  farrowing  sows  a  temporary  board  floor  should  be  laid 
over  the  cement,  because  of  the  coldness  of  a  cement  floor. 
Woven  wire  stretched  over  the  top  of  the  ground  to  pre- 
vent rooting  is  sometimes  used  as  a  floor.  Such  a  floor, 
however,  is  likelv  to  be  either  dustv  or  wet.   Board  floors  are 


402  AGRICULTURE 

expensive  and  drafty  if  built  above  ground.  They  also  har- 
bor rats,  which  not  infrequently  kill  young  pigs.  A  dou- 
ble trough  may  supply  each  pair  of  pens.  Young  pigs 
should  have  their  own  troughs  outside  the  main  pens. 

Lighting  and  ventilating  hog-houses. — It  is  not  un- 
common to  find  hog-houses  that  cost  several  thousand  dol- 
lars built  almost  without  windows  or  other  means  of  admit- 
ting light,  air  and  sunshine.  Other  houses  are  built  with 
windows  in  unfavorable  positions,  so  that  the  sunlight  can 
not  fall  on  the  floor  of  the  pens  where  it  is  needed  by  the 
pigs. 

The  hog-house  should  run  east  and  west,  so  that  it  may 
have  one  full  side  exposed  to  the  sun.  This  arrangement 
will  necessitate  having  one  row  of  pens  along  the  north  side. 
In  order  to  get  sunlight  into  the  north  pens,  the  ''broken 
roof"  style  of  building  is  used.  Care  must  be  taken  to  place 
both  upper  and  lower  windows  at  such  a  height  that  the 
sunlight  will  reach  the  floor  during  the  winter  and  early 
spring  months,  or  during  the  farrowing  season. 

To  do  this,  the  angle  of  the  sun,  say  in  February  and 
March,  and  the  width  of  the  building  must  be  carefully  com- 
puted. At  the  latitude  of  southern  Iowa,  or  central  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Ohio  and  Nebraska,  the  tops  of  the  upper  win- 
dows of  a  hog-house  twenty  feet  wide  should  be  ten  and 
one-half  feet  from  the  ground.  The  windows  should  be 
placed  higher  in  southern  and  lower  in  northern  states. 
If  the  north  pens  are  eight  feet  long,  and  the  alley  is  four 
feet  wide,  the  sunshine  will  just  reach  the  back  line  of  the 
pens  at  ten  o'clock  and  at  two  o'clock  on  the  first  of  March. 
Care  to  such  details  will  save  the  lives  of  many  young  pigs 
farrowed  in  the  northern  states  during  early  spring. 

Individual  hog  cots. — ]^Iany  hog  raisers  are  now  pro- 
viding two  types  of  hog-houses,  the  large  permanent  house 
for  farrowing  purposes,  and  the  small  individual  cot  for 


SWINE 


403 


the  sows  and  their  Htters  as  soon  as  the  pigs  are  old  enough 
to  be  put  out-of-doors.  The  individual  cots  may  be  scattered 
about  the  lot  or  pasture,  and  moved  as  often  as  necessary 
to  keep  the  quarters  clean.  For  winter  service  the  cots 
can  be  collected  side  by  side  in  a  sheltered  place,  banked 
and  used  for  sleeping  quarters. 


IndividiiMl  hog  cot,  on  ruimers,  so  that  it  can  be  drawn  from 
place  to  place. 

The  feeding  floor. — The  use  of  a  sanitary  feeding 
floor  should  be  much  more  common  than  it  is.  It  is  a 
great  waste  of  grain  to  scatter  it  in  the  mud  or  dust  of  a 
dirt  yard.  This  mode  of  feeding  is  also  injurious  to  the 
health  of  the  pigs,  for  it  compels  them  to  breathe  in  a  great 
amount  of  dust  and  to  eat  impurities  in  order  to  get  the 
grain.  The  effect  is  seen  in  such  diseases  as  "thumps"  and 
''wheezes,''  and  in  the  greater  liability  to  colds,  tuberculosis 
and  other  troubles. 


404 


AGRICULTURE 


The  best  feeding  floor  is  made  of  concrete,  slightly  raised 
above  the  level  of  the  ground,  if  made  outside  the  hog-house, 
and  sloping  slightly  so  that  it  can  easily  be  washed  off. 


Rnck  for  Feedinsj  Alfalfa   Hay  to  Hosts. 


Such  a  floor  is  not  expensive,  and  will  pay  for  itself  many 
times  over  in  the  feeding  of  hogs. 


Topics  for  Investigatiox 

1.     Make  a  census  of  all  the  hogs  on  your  home  farm, 
classifying  them  into  the   following  groups :    brood   sows, 


SWINE  405 

suckling  pigs,  young  shoats,  and  fattening  hogs.  Have 
your  father  help  you  estimate  the  value  of  each  group,  and 
compute  the  value  of  all. 

2.  What  different  breeds  are  represented  on  your  farm  ? 
Are  the  breeds  pure  or  mixed? 

3.  At  v^hat  time  of  the  year  are  the  pigs  farrowed  ?  At 
what  age  are  they  weaned?  At  what  age  is  fattening 
started?  Are  the  young  pigs  allowed  the  range  of  a  pas- 
ture? If  so,  what  grass  is  used?  What  feed  is  used  in 
addition  ? 

4.    Feeding  Hogs 

Hogs  are  probably  the  best  money  makers  on  the  farm, 
if  properly  handled.  The  same  amcunt  of  feed  will  produce 
a  greater  value  of  pork  than  any  other  meat.  The  returns 
also  come  in  sooner  than  with  most  other  farm  animals. 
Money  invested  in  hogs  can  be  turned  rapidly,  as  pigs  are 
marketable  when  eight  months  old.  The  yearly  sales  from 
a  herd  of  hogs  should  be  from  two  to  four  times  the  orig- 
inal investment.  Much  of  the  profit  depends  on  intelli- 
gent feeding. 

The  feeding  of  pigs  requires  the  consideration  of  three 
stages  in  their  development,  (1)  from  farrowing  to  wean- 
ing, {2)  from  weaning  to  fattening,  and  (3)  fattening  for 
marlrct. 

Feeding  young  pigs. — Little  pigs  do  not  need  any 
food  other  than  their  mother's  milk  for  the  first  two  or 
three  weeks  of  their  life.  When  they  have  reached  this  age, 
they  will  begin  to  nibble  on  shelled  corn.  A  little  of  this 
should  be  fed  them  in  a  place  outside  the  pen.  By  the  time 
they  are  from  three  to  four  weeks  old,  they  may  be  fed 
a  small  amount  of  skim-milk,  in  which  has  been  mixed  a 
little  ground  feed,  such  as  shorts.  They  should  have  a 
trough  of  their  own  where  it  can  not  be  reached  by  the 
mother. 


406 


AGRICULTURE 


The  amount  of  mixed  feeds  and  shelled  corn  given  small 
pigs  may  be  increased  till  they  are  ten  weeks  old,  when  they 
should  be  weaned.  When  they  are  deprived  of  their  moth- 
er's milk,  which  up  to  weaning  time  supplies  the  basis  of 
their  nourishment,  it  is  very  important  that  they  be  fed  a 


A  good  type  of  feeding  pen  for  small  pigs. 


ration   capable  of  producing  the  most   rapid   growth   and 
best  health. 

Feeding  pigs  after  weaning. — At  the  time  of  weaning, 
the  feed  should  not  be  greatly  changed,  except  to  increase 
the  amount,  until  the  pigs  have  become  accustomed  to  the 
loss  of  the  mother's  milk.    If  pasture  is  available,  the  quan- 


SWINE 


407 


tity  of  corn  may  be  increased.  If  the  pigs  must  be  kept 
in  a  dry  lot,  a  larger  proportion  of  soft  feeds  should  be 
used. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  purpose  in  feeding  pigs 
from  the  age  of  two  months  up  to  the  age  of  six  or  seven 
months  is  not  to  fatten  them,  but  to  cause  them  to  grow 
large  frames  and  develop  good  constitutions.     If  they  are 


^'^' ' 

SAME 

LITTER 

■  ■     ■    1 

i 

J    185"  ;; 

CORN 
ALONE 

h-  4 

\i 

CORN 

& 

ALFALFA 

HAY 

\Jl 

.  ™J 

fattened  too  early,  it  stops  their  growth,  and  reduces  their 
vitality,  thereby  making  it  unprofitable  to  continue  feeding 
them  up  to  full  maturity. 

Pasturage  for  growing  pigs. — Growing  hogs,  there- 
fore, require  muscle  and  bone  making  food,  instead  of  a 
ration  that  will  fatten  them.  They  need  exercise  to  pro- 
mote their  growth,  and  give  them  strong  vigorous  frames 


408  AGRICULTURE 

for  the  taking  on  of  fat.  For  these  reasons,  pasturage 
should  supply  the  basis  of  the  young  hog's  ration.  Clover, 
alfalfa,  peas,  rape,  vetch  and  other  succulent  plants  are  the 
cheapest  and  best  feeds  for  the  period  betv^een  w^eaning  and 
fattening  time. 

To  this  green  feed  will  need  to  be  added  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  corn,  or  other  grain,'  in  order  to  make  a  balanced 
ration.  But  the  poorest  and  most  expensive  v^ay  to  grow 
pigs  is  to  shut  them  in  a  dry  lot  and  feed  them  a  ration  of 
corn  alone,  as  is  so  often  done.  The  farm  lacking  in  well 
arranged  hog  pastures  is  not  ready  for  the  business  of  mak- 
ing money  out  of  pork. 

Balanced  rations  for  young  hogs. — No  matter  what 
other  ration  may  be  fed  pigs,  milk  is  always  desirable.  For 
milk  is  highly  palatable  to  hogs,  and  it  contains  more  of 
the  necessary  food  elements  than  any  other  food.  The  fol- 
lowing are  suggested  as  rations  suitable  for  growing  hogs 
that  have,  in  addition,  access  to  good  pasturage : 

1.  Corn,  60%;  shorts,  30%;  tankage,  10%;  or 

2.  Corn,     one-third;     wheat,     one-third;     oats,     one-third, 

ground;  or 

3.  Corn,  one-half;  shorts,  one-half;  or 

4.  Corn,  60%;  shorts,  20%;  linseed-oil  meal,  20%;  or 

5.  Corn,  one-third;  milk,  two-thirds. 

It  has  been  shown  by  careful  tests  that  if  pigs  must  be 
fed  in  dry  lots,  ration  one,  consisting  of  corn  sixty  per  cent., 
shorts  thirty  per  cent,  and  tankage  ten  per  cent.,  will  produce 
double  the  gain  that  can  be  secured  from  corn  alone. 

Fattening  hogs. — Pigs  should  be  ready  for  fatten- 
ing by  the  time  they  are  from  six  to  six  and  one-half  months 
old.  When  fattening  begins,  the  ration  should  have  a  much 
larger  proportion  of  corn.  In  fact,  hogs  may  be  profitably 
fattened  on  corn  bv  the  addition  of  milk  to  the  ration. 


SWINE 


409 


While  being  fed  for  fattening,  the  hog  does  not  require 
the  amount  of  exercise  needed  during  the  growing  period. 
It  is  not  best,  however,  to  shut  feeders  up  in  a  close  pen, 
for  a  certain  amount  of  exercise  is  necessary  to  keep  the 
hog  in  a  healthy  condition  and  with  good  appetite. 


M-^ 


I'aii.-  ..i  a  hog. 


A.  Snout 

K.  Back 

S.  Hock 

B.  Eye 

L.  Loin 

T.  Hind  leg 

C.  Face 

M.  Side 

U.  Fore  flank 

D.  Ear 

N.  Tail 

V.  Foot 

E.  Jowl 

O.  Rump 

W.  Pasterns 

F.  Neck 

P.  Breast 

X.  Dew   claw 

G.  Fore  lei? 

Q.  Hind   flank 

Y.  Stifle 

H.  Shoulder 

R.  Ham 

Z.  Belly 

I.  Chest  line 

Snapped  corn  is  preferable  to  husked  ears  on  account  of 
the  greater  amount  of  work  demanded  of  the  hog,  and  the 
slower  eating  required.  Where  the  fields  can  be  properly 
fenced  off,  the  best  of  all  ways  to  feed  corn  to  hogs  is  to 
allow  them  to  do  their  own  harvesting.     This  method  of 


410  AGRICULTURE 

feeding,  called  "hogging  down"  corn,  gives  the  hogs  about 
the  right  amount  of  exercise,  allows  them  to  eat  whenever 
they  desire,  and  saves  the  farmer  the  labor  of  husking, 
hauling  and  feeding.  The  same  amount  of  corn  will  also 
produce  more  pork. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Is  attention  given  on  your  home  farm  to  feeding 
hogs  a  balanced  ration?  If  so,  what  are  the  feeds  used? 
What  is  the  ration  used  for  fattening  ? 

2.  If,  when  pigs  are  allowed  to  "hog  down"  corn  it 
takes  eight  pounds  of  corn  to  produce  one  pound  of  pork,  but 
requires  ten  pounds  of  corn  to  make  a  pound  of  pork  when 
the  corn  is  fed  in  a  pen,  what  will  be  the  difference  in  the 
value  of  the  corn  fed  twenty  hogs  while  they  are  making  an 
average  gain  of  seventy-five  pounds  each,  corn  being  worth 
fifty-five  cents  a  bushel  ? 

5.    Diseases  Affecting  Hogs 

Young  pigs  are  not  particularly  liable  to  any  one  dis- 
ease, but  easily  fall  prey  to  troubles  arising  from  improper 
care.  Cold,  wet,  dirty  pens  cause  the  death  of  many  new- 
farrowed  pigs.  Dusty  floors,  filthy  mud-holes  and  un- 
cleaned  troughs  are  always  harmful.  Exposure  to  extreme 
cold  or  to  burning  heat  is  sure  to  tell  in  loss  of  health  or 
weight.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  half  the  troubles  attacking 
the  younger  pigs,  at  least,  could  be  saved  by  providing  them 
with  more  sanitary  surroundings. 

Thumps. — This  is  a  disease  that  manifests  itself  in  a 
spasmodic  manner  of  breathing,  which  suggests  the  nam.e. 
It  is  usually  a  digestive  trouble  caused  by  over-feeding 
and  lack  of  exercise.  '  Certain  worms  may  also  cause 
thumps.  The  best  preventive  for  thumps,  especially  with 
young  hogs,  is  plenty  of  pasture  with  green  feed.     The 


SWINE  411 

treatment  for  thumps  is  to  reduce  the  amount  of  feed,  give 
a  laxative,  and  make  sure  that  the  pigs  get  exercise. 

Scours. — Scours,  or  too  great  laxness  in  the  digestive 
tract,  are  caused  in  young  pigs  by  overfeeding,  a  feverish 
condition  of  the  mother  sow,  soured  feeds,  dirty  troughs, 
or  some  other  unsanitary  condition  connected  vv^ith  their 
feeding.  The  first  step  in  applying  a  remedy  is  to  find 
and  remove  the  cause.  If  the  trouble  continues,  each  pig 
may  be  given  a  few  drops  of  laudanum. 

Worms. — Worms  are  a  source  of  great  trouble  in 
raising  pigs.  Through  rooting  in  the  dirt,  and  being  fed 
on  dirt  floors,  young  pigs  pick  up  certain  kinds  of  worms 
which  continue  to  live  in  their  digestive  organs.  Pigs 
never  thrive  when  afflicted  with  worms.  The  coat  shows 
rough,  growth  is  hindered,  the  general  health  affected,  and 
a  large  proportion  of  the  feed  wasted.  A  simple  remedy 
is  to  give  one  teaspoonful  of  turpentine  to  sixty  or  eighty 
pounds  of  hog,  and  repeat  the  dose  in  three  days.  Another 
remedy  is  five  grains  of  santonin  combined  with  three  grains 
of  calomel  for  each  sixty  or  eighty  pounds  of  hog.  This 
should  be  followed  by  an  effective  physic.  Whatever  the 
remedy  employed,  the  pigs  should  be  starved  for  twelve 
hours  before  being  dosed. 

Lice. — Many  hogs  are  lousy.  The  lice  can  easily  be 
detected  by  looking  between  the  legs  or  behind  the  ears. 
Hogs  suffering  with  lice  will  make  a  slower  growth  and 
fatten  less  easily  than  clean  hogs.  So  important  is  this 
matter  that  many  hog  raisers  provide  as  a  part  of  their 
equipment  a  dipping  tank,  in  which  some  form  of  crude 
oil  or  coal  tar  is  used  as  a  bath.  Where  the  dipping 
tank  is  not  available,  or  in  the  case  of  young  pigs,  the 
remedy  should  be  sprayed  or  rubbed  on. 

Tuberculosis. — Hogs,  like  various  other  animals,  are 


412 


AGRICULTURE 


subject  to  tuberculosis.  Many  hogs  have  this  disease  in 
some  form.  Its  effects  are  seen  in  a  stoppage  of  growth, 
a  general  run-down  appearance,  loss  of  appetite,  and  in 
some  cases,  death.  Because  hogs  are  kept  so  short  a  time, 
and  tuberculosis  is  so  slow  a  disease,  there  is  comparatively- 
little  loss  owing  to  deaths  from  tuberculosis.  But  many 
animals  when  slaughtered  are  found  to  be  unfit  for  food  be- 
cause of  the  disease. 


Two  hogs:  one  a  pure  bred,  the  other  a  "razor-back."  The 
large  one  was  owned  and  raised  by  the  club  boy,  receiving 
good  care  and  a  balanced  ration.  The  small  one,  owned  by  a 
farmer  with  old  notions  and  habits,  had  poor  care  and  a  nar- 
row ration. 


Tuberculosis  is  caught  either  from  diseased  pigs,  or  from 
drinking  the  milk  of  tubercular  cows.  It  is  probable  that 
most  of  the  tuberculosis  in  swine  comes  from  the  latter 
cause.  Many  hog  raisers  now  pasteurize  the  milk  before 
feeding  it  to  the  pigs.  This  is  the  only  sure  preventive 
against  tubercular  milk. 

Hog  cholera. — By  far  the  worse  disease  scourge  af- 


SWINE  413 

fecting  hogs  is  cholera.  It  not  infrequently  wipes  out  en- 
tire herds  within  a  few  weeks.  The  average  yearly  loss 
from  hog  cholera  in  Indiana  is  estimated  at  three  million 
dollars.  In  one  single  "cholera  year"  one  single  state  lost  at 
least  twenty  million  dollars  from  this  cause.  Other  states 
suffer  in  like  proportion.  It  is,  therefore,  of  the  highest 
importance  that  the  causes  of  cholera,  and  the  modes  of  pre- 
vention be  well  understood. 

Hog  cholera  is  a  germ  sickness  caught  by  infection 
from  hogs  that  have  the  disease.  It  is  not  necessary  for 
well  animals  to  come  in  direct  contact  with  cholera  hogs 
in  order  to  catch  the  infection.  The  germs  may  be  carried 
by  dogs ;  by  pigeons,  crows,  or  other  birds  that  alight  in 
the  hog  lot  to  pick  up  grain ;  by  men  who  have  tramped 
through  a  lot  where  cholera  hogs  have  been ;  by  new  stock 
brought  into  the  herd ;  and  by  streams  that  have  become 
infected.  When  hog  cholera  is  in  the  region,  therefore,  it 
is  necessary  to  observe  every  precaution  to  keep  infection 
away  from  the  herd. 

Effects  of  cholera. — The  disease  is  so  marked  in  its 
symptoms  that  it  is  not  hard  to  distinguish  from  most  other 
hog  sicknesses-  In  hog  cholera,  the  lymphatic  glands,  lungs, 
intestines,  kidneys  and  liver  are  highly  inflamed.  Red 
blotches  appear  on  the  skin.  Appetite  is  lost,  the  gait  be- 
comes staggering,  the  eyes  inflamed.  Not  infrequently 
bleeding  at  the  nose  and  vomiting  occur.  The  temperature 
is  usually  from  one  hundred  and  seven  to  one  hundred  and 
eight  degrees  Fahrenheit.  The  first  ones  of  the  herd  to  be 
stricken  commonly  die  within  a  few  days ;  those  that  take 
the  disease  later  may  live  for  several  weeks,  or  even  recover. 

Treatment. — No  absolute  cure  has  been  discovered 
for  hog  cholera.  Nearly  all  animals  that  take  the  disease 
usually  die.     A  method  of  preventing  well  herds  from 


414 


AGRICULTURE 


contracting  cholera  has,  however,  been  discovered.  This 
is  to  give  well  hogs  anti-cholera  serum ;  or,  in  effect, 
vaccinate  them,  as  is  done  with  people  for  smallpox  and 
diphtheria. 

The  hog  cholera  serum  is  secured  by  drawing  blood  from 
a  hog  which  has  first  been  rendered  immune  to  cholera, 
either  by  having  had  the  disease  or  being  given  a  special 
treatment  for  the  purpose  of  immunizing,  and  then  having 
had  cholera  germs  injected  into  his  veins.     Each  animal  of 


Pb  ^ 


I  had  serum. 


I  wish  I  had. 


the  herd  to  be  treated  is  given  by  hypodenrJc  injection  a 
certain  quantity  of  this  serum  in  proportion  to  its  size. 

If  the  treatment  is  successful,  it  will  immunize  the  herd 
against  cholera  for  several  weeks.  When  the  serum  is 
given  to  well  herds,  a  cholera  hog  is  sometimes  brought 
among  them,  or  its  carcass  even  fed  them,  at  the  time  the 
treatment  is  given.  This  method  is  thought  to  make  the 
immunity  more  certain. 

Success  of  the  serum  treatment. — ^The  success  of  the 
serum  treatment  is  still  questioned  by  many.     It  seems  rea- 


SWINE  415 

sonably  certain,  however,  that  where  failure  has  followed  its 
use,  it  was  because  the  serum  was  improperly  prepared 
or  not  skilfully  administered.  Various  experiment  stations 
have  found  that  there  is  a  loss  of  only  about  ten  per  cent, 
of  the  hogs  treated  in  herds  already  infected,  and  of  only 
one  or  two  per  cent,  in  well  herds  where  the  serum  treat- 
ment has  been  carefully  used.  The  manufacture  of  serum 
by  the  state,  or  official  inspection  of  its  manufacture  by  pri- 
vate plants,  will  make  its  use  as  a  cholera  preventive  still 
more  effective.  No  one  is  justified  in  neglecting  to  treat  his 
herd  with  the  serum  when  hog  cholera  threatens. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

L  Have  you  any  hogs  that  do  not  seem  to  be  thriving? 
If  so,  can  you  judge  what  is  the  matter?  Do  they  cough? 
Do  they  lack  appetite?  Do  they  look  rough  coated,  and 
run  down  ?  Is  it  likely  that  they*  have  tuberculosis  ?  That 
they  have  worms  ?    Have  they  the  thumps  ? 

2.  Examine  several  hogs  out  of  your  herd  for  the  pres- 
ence of  lice.  Are  your  hogs  ever  treated  for  lice?  Why 
is  it  that  lousy  hogs  never  thrive  well  ? 

3.  Compare  all  the  different  types  of  hog-houses  used 
in  your  neighborhood.  How  many  are  clean,  light,  well 
ventilated,  and  have  the  windows  so  placed  that  the  pens 
receive  the  sunlight  during  the  spring  farrowing  season? 

4.  Discuss  the  value  of  the  cholera  serum  as  a  pre- 
ventive for  hog  cholera.  How  would  you  proceed  to  get 
state  and  government  help  for  the  care  of  hogs  if  any  of 
them  showed  symptoms  of  hog  cholera?  What  are  some 
of  the  symptoms? 

5.  Show  how  to  keep  a  book  account  of  a  pen  of  pigs,, 
five  in  number,  for  a  season  of  six  months.  The  items 
should  include  labor  costs,  feed  and  equipment. 

6.  Show  upon  the  map  the  relative  standing  of  the 
hog  states  of  the  Union.  Has  there  been  a  falling  off  or 
an  increase  in  hog  production  during  the  last  ten  years? 
Refer  to  the  last  census  report  of  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture. 

28 


416  AGRICULTURE 

6.    Demonstrations 

1.  Demonstrate  upon  the  blackboard  or  with  paste- 
board or  paper,  how  to  make  a  hog-house ;  also  a  hog  pen 
with  feeding  floor;  then  make  a  miniature  outfit  for  the 
club  festival  or  school  fair. 

2.  How  best  to  move  hogs  from  place  to  place.  Would 
you  drive,  lead,  or  coax  them? 

3.  Demonstrate  by  diagram  the  proper  divisions  of  a 
hog  for  the  butcher's  meat  block. 

4.  Demonstrate  the  proper  method  for  the  vaccination 
of  hogs  for  hog  cholera.  (Consult  Farmers'  Bulletin  No. 
379.) 

5.  How  to  make  feeding  and  watering  troughs  for  hog 
pens,  in  a  simple  inexpensive  way. 


7.     Play  Contests 

1.  Contest  in  hog  judging. 

2.  Naming  and  giving  five  characteristics  of  each  of 
the  various  types  or  breeds  of  hogs. 

3.  Spelling  contest,  in  which  words  relating  to  the  hog 
industry  are  used. 

4.  Essay  writing  contest  on  one  or  more  of  the  follow- 
ing subjects :  "The  Origin  of  the  Hog" ;  *'The  Care  and 
Feeding  of  Hogs" ;  'Treatment  for  Diseases  of  Hogs." 

5.  Drawing  contest  of  hogs,  hog  pens,  equipment,  etc. 


8.     Pork  Production  Clubs 

The  pork  production  club  work  can  easily  be  combined 
with  the  corn  or  grain  club.  Each  member  takes  pure- 
bred pigs  to  raise  in  connection  with  the  corn  or  grain 
crop,  keeping,  of  course,  separate  records  of  each  interest 


SWINE  417 

and  charging  against  the  hog  at  market  price  all  grain  or 
other  feed  used,  from  the  club  acre.  Careful  records  of 
observation,  receipts  and  expenditures  should  be  kept  in 
connection  with  the  club  work  and  the  project  should  cover 
nine  or  twelve  months  of  work. 

The  basis  of  award  in  this  particular  project  may  be 
as  follows : 

1.  The  exhibit  of  the  hog  and  relation  to  its  purpose  judged 

by   score-card  25 

2.  Average  gain  per  day  or  month 25 

3.  Net  profit,  and  cost  of  production 25 

4.  Records  and  story  on  "How  I  Raised  My  Hog" 25 

Total    score 100 

Note. — If  combining  crop  production  with  pork  produc- 
tion in  the  club  work,  use  basis  of  awards  as  outlined  in 
crop  chapter.  Add  the  two  scores  and  divide  by  two  and 
you  have  the  average  score  for  the  crop  and  pork  produc- 
tion club  work. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
SHEEP 

THE  raising  of  sheep  has  never  received  the  attention  it 
deserves  in  most  regions.  There  are  at  present  only  a 
little  more  than  fifty  million  sheep  on  the  farms  of  the 
United  States.  Almost  sixty  per  cent,  of  our  sheep  are  found 
in  ten  states,  seven  of  which  are  in  the  far  West,  one  in  the 
South,  and  only  two  in  the  middle  and  eastern  states.  Ac- 
cording to  their  importance  in  sheep  raising,  these  states 
are:  Montana,  Wyoming,  Ohio,  New  Mexico,  Idaho,  Ore- 
gon, California,  Michigan,  Texas  and  Utah.  Other  states 
having  important  sheep  interests  are  Missouri,  Indiana, 
Kentucky,  Iowa  and  Illinois. 

1.    Importance  of  Sheep  on  the  Farm 

Sheep  could  be  raised  with  good  profit  on  thousands  of 
farms  where  they  are  now  unknown.  They  are  among  the 
most  hardy  of  the  domestic  animals,  and  will  thrive  in  al- 
most every  part  of  the  country. 

Sheep  as  foragers. — Sheep  have  no  equal  among  the 
farm  animals  as  foragers.  They  will  eat  a  wide  range  of 
roughage,  much  of  which  is  not  of  value  to  other  stock. 
Certain  weeds  not  palatable  to  most  animals  are  eaten  by 
sheep,  and  they  therefore  aid  in  keeping  pastures,  meadows 
and  fields  clean.  Sheep  will  graze  steep  hillsides  not  acces- 
sible to  horses  or  cattle,  and  will  feed  from  the  foliage 
and  twigs  of  brushland  pastures.     They  find  a  good  living 

418 


SHEEP 


419 


on  stubble-fields,  and  will  clean  up  the  waste  leaves,  husks 
and  stalks  of  corn-fields,  being  able  to  thrive  in  fields  where 
cattle  and  horses  have  gleaned  all  that  they  can  well  find. 
Sheep  can  therefore  obtain  a  considerable  part  of  their  liv- 
ing from  material  that  would  otherwise  be  lost. 


r 


%Pf^^^i^>>^^m^^m^^m'!!^m^mw'^9m»^^^-'v^^^ 


Sheep  grazing  in  Washington. 

Sheep  require  little  labor. — Comparatively  little  labor 
is  required  in  caring  for  sheep.  In  order  to  maintain  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  we  need  to  raise  more  stock  on  our 
farms.  Half  a  dozen  sheep  will  produce  as  much  income 
as  a  dairy  cow,  and  demand  much  less  labor  for  their  care. 


420  AGRICULTURE 

Their  heavy  coats  enable  sheep  to  live  in  relatively  open 
sheds  in  the  winter,  providing  they  are  kept  dry.  The  cost 
of  shelter  is  therefore  low. 

One  of  the  chief  practical  difficulties  in  sheep  raising 
is  that  the  fences  suitable  for  horses  and  cattle  will  not 
hold  sheep.  The  present  tendency,  however,  is  to  build 
closer  fences,  so  that  fields  will  be  available  for  both  hogs 
and  sheep.  In  some  regions  serious  loss  of  sheep  occurs 
from  vicious  dogs,  wolves  and  coyotes.  Sheep-killing  dogs 
should  be  relentlessly  shot. 

Sheep  bring  quick  returns. — Sheep  are  almost  as  good 
as  poultry  for  quick  returns.  For  ordinary  farm  purposes 
dual  purpose  breeds  are  usually  selected  to  produce  both 
wool  and  mutton.  In  this  way  a  double  yield  can  be  se- 
cured— fleeces  from  all  the  flock,  and  either  lambs  or  mut- 
ton in  addition. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  fleece  from  good  sheep  should 
pay  for  their  feed,  thereby  leaving  the  lambs  raised  or  the 
mutton  produced  as  profit.  Lambs  are  ready  for  market  at 
from  seven  to  twelve  months  of  age,  thus  allowing  the 
money  invested  in  them  to  be  turned  quickly. 

2.     Breeds  of  Sheep 

Sheep,  like  cattle,  are  kept  for  two  purposes.  Just  as 
cattle  include  both  the  beef  and  the  dairy  breeds,  so  sheep 
comprise  mtitton  breeds  and  merino,  or  wool,  breeds. 

Mutton  breeds. — Mutton  breeds  of  sheep  correspond 
to  beef  breeds  of  cattle — their  forms  must  be  such  as  to 
yield  the  best  results  on  the  butchers'  block,  and  they  must 
be  able  to  change  their  feed  profitably  into  mutton. 

Mutton  breeds  are  divided  into  two  classes  in  accordance 
with  the  length  of  their  wool :  ( 1 )  medium  wool,  or  down 
type,  of  which  there  are  eight  different  breeds ;  and  (2) 
long  wool,  of  which  there  are  three  breeds. 


Medium  wool  breeds — 


Long  wool  breeds — 


Sheep  grazing,  tyiDical  of  western  states. 


The  mutton  breeds  are  more  commonly  used  for  the  gen- 
eral purposes  of  the  farmer  than  are  the  breeds  that  are 
classified  as  merino. 

Merino  breeds. — The  merino  breeds  of  sheep  corre- 
spond to  the  dairy  breeds  of  cattle.  The  build  is  more 
angular  than  that  of  the  mutton  breeds,  and  the  general 
form  such  as  to  give  the  largest  surface  for  the  attach- 
ment of  fleece.  On  the  pure  wool  breeds  the  skin  often 
hangs  in  folds  on  certain  parts  of  the  body,  thus  increasing 


422  AGRICULTURE 

the  area  for  the  growth  of  wool.     The  three  chief  merino 
breeds  are: 

American  Merino 
Delaine  Merino 
Rambouillet 

Market  classes  of  sheep. — Wholly  regardless  of  breed, 
market  demands  divide  sheep  into  three  groups  or  classes. 
These  are  (1)  fat,  or  mutton  sheep,  or  those  ready  for 
slaughter;  if  the  animals  are  less  than  one  year  old,  they 
are  called  lambs;  (2)  feeders,  or  animals  ready  to  be  fat- 
tened;  and  (3)  breeders. 

3.     Feeding  Sheep 

What  has  been  said  about  the  ability  of  sheep  to  forage 
for  a  great  part  of  their  food  must  not  be  understood  to 
mean  that  it  does  not  matter  what  sheep  are  given  to  eat. 
For  sheep  are  exactly  like  all  other  animals  in  requiring 
the  right  proportion  of  nutritive  elements  in  their  food. 
Lacking  a  proper  ration,  they  will  be  checked  in  growth, 
delayed  in  fattening,  or  short  on  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
wool. 

Feeding  ewes  kept  for  breeding. — Ewes  that  are  to 
produce  lambs  in  the  spring  may  be  fed  through  the  winter 
on  a  cheaper  ration  than  that  required  for  the  feeders.  The 
ewes  need  more  of  the  muscle-forming,  and  less  of  the  fat- 
producing  foods.  Their  rations  may  therefore  consist  more 
largely  of  roughage,  and  less  of  grains  than  for  the  fat- 
tening lambs. 

For  breeding  ewes  weighing  from  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  the  following 
daily  rations  have  been  tested  by  the  Minnesota  Experiment 
Station  and  have  been  found  to  be  economical  and  satis- 
factory : 


SHEEP 


423 


Ration  No.  1. 


Ration  No.  2. 


3.5  pounds  of  corn  stover.  2.0  pounds  of  clover  hay. 

2.0  pounds  of  roots.  1.4     pounds  of  corn  stover. 

0.4  pounds  of  oats    or    shelled  0.4    pounds    of   oats    and    corn 
corn.  mixed. 

Feeding   for   market. — The    ration    for   fattening   re- 
quires a  larger  proportion  of  fats  and  carbohydrates  than 


Montana  sheep  ready  for  shipment. 

the  ones  just  described.  It  has  also  been  found  that  lambs 
fatten  best  with  a  mixture  of  succulent  food  along  with  the 
usual  roughage  and  grain. 

The   Cornell   University  Experiment   Station  has   tried 
extensive  experiments  in  fattening  different  lots  of  lambs 


424  AGRICULTURE 

during  a  period  of  one  hundred  and  ten  days.     Each  of  the 
following  rations  served  fifty  lambs  for  one  day : 

Ration  No.  1.  Ration  No.  2. 


60  pounds  of  silage.  65  pounds  of  mixed  hay. 

50  pounds  of  mixed  hay.  35  pounds  of  corn. 

35  pounds  of  corn.  15  pounds  of  oats. 

13  pounds  of  oats.  5  pounds  of  brewer's  grains. 
5  pounds  of  brewer's  grain. 

Ration  No.  3.  Ration  No.  4. 


65  pounds  of  mixed  hay.  60  pounds  of  silage. 

10  pounds  of  corn.  50  pounds  of  mixed  hay. 

20  pounds  of  brewer's  grains."       10  pounds  of  corn. 
20  pounds  of  gluten.  20  pounds  of  brewer's  grains. 

5  pounds  of  oats.  20  pounds  of  gluten. 

5  pounds  of  oats. 

It  should  be  understood  in  studying  these  rations  that 
at  the  beginning  of  the  feeding  period  a  larger  proportion 
of  roughage  and  a  smaller  proportion  of  grain  were  fed.  By 
the  end  of  the  one-hundred-and-ten-day  period  this  propor- 
tion had  been  reversed.  The  rations  as  given  are  the  daily 
average  for  the  whole  time. 

The  actual  amount  of  nutrients  is  the  same  for  each  of 
these  four  rations,  yet  the  results  differ  considerably  both 
as  to  cost  and  the  amount  of  fat  produced,  as  is  shown  by 
the  following  comparisons : 


Ration 

1 
2 
3 
4 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  most  rapid  gains,  and  at  the 
lowest  cost  per  pound  were  from  the  rations  that  contained 


Average  gain  per  sheep 

Cost  per  pound 

in  110  days 

of  gain 

22.7  pounds 

10.6  cents 

15.7 

15.9      " 

'   18.9        " 

13.2      " 

25.1        " 

9.6      " 

SHEEP  425 

silage.  It  is  also  seen  that  the  lowest  gain,  and  at  the 
highest  cost  per  pound,  was  from  ration  No.  2,  where  all 
succulent  food  was  lacking,  and  most  of  the  grain  ration 
consisted  of  corn  and  oats. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Make  a  study  of  the  sheep  raising  industry  in  your 
vicinity,  determining  (1)  how  many  sheep  are  kept,  (2) 
what  breeds  are  most  used,  (3)  whether  mutton  or  wool  is 
depended  on  for  the  chief  source  of  profit,  and  (4)  what 
method  of  feeding  and  housing  is  principally  followed. 

2.  Which  would  probably  add  more  labor  on  your 
farm,  increasing  your  dairy  herd  by  five  cows,  or  keeping 
a  flock  of  thirty  sheep?  How  would  the  profits  probably 
compare?    What  is  the  basis  for  your  judgment? 

3.  Suppose  the  cost  of  the  nutrients  making  up  the 
fattening  rations  shown  on  page  423  was  as  follows :  Hay, 
ten  dollars  a  ton ;  silage,  two  dollars  and  fifty  cents  a  ton ; 
corn,  sixty-five  cents  a  bushel ;  oats,  forty-five  cents  a 
bushel ;  distiller's  grains,  thirty  dollars  a  ton ;  gluten, 
twenty-five  dollars  a  ton.  Figure  what  it  would  cost  to 
feed  fifty  lambs  with  each  ration  for  one  hundred  and  ten 
days. 

4.  After  judging  one  or  more  sheep  under  the  direction 
of  the  teacher,  judge  several  animals  independently,  and 
then  have  your  markings  criticized  and  corrected. 

5.  Write  an  argument  of  three  hundred  w^ords  showing 
why  sheep  raising  should  be  extended  as  an  industry  in 
your  neighborhood  and  county. 

6.  Show  how  to  keep  a  record  of  labor  costs,  pasture 
rent,  feed  and  shearing  of  ten  sheep. 

7.  Indicate  on  the  map  of  the  United  States  the  sheep 
areas  and  the  approximate  number  of  sheep  in  each  state 
as  shown  by  the  last  census  report. 

8.  Enumerate  in  your  note-book  the  various  products 
supplied  by  sheep. 

4.     Sheep  Demonstrations 
1.     Demonstrate  the  proper  method  of  shearing  sheep. 


426  AGRICULTURE 

2.  Show  how  to  make  a  balanced  ration  for  sheep  for 
the  month  of  January  in  your  locality. 

3.  Demonstrate  how  to  judge  the  sheep.  Use  drawing, 
photograph  or  chart. 

4.  Demonstrate  how  to  judge  a  lamb  for  mutton  pur- 
poses.   Use  an  animal  in  this  case  if  possible. 

5.  Show  how  to  judge  sheep  for  wool  purposes.  Use 
the  animal  in  this  case. 

5.  Sheep  Play  Contests 

1.  Breed  naming  contests. 

2.  Wool  fabric  judging  contest.  A  number  of  small 
pieces  of  various  kinds  of  wool  cloth,  mixed  with  half  wool 
and  half  cotton  pieces,  and  some  cotton  pieces  can  be 
placed  before  the  pupils  with  a  view  to  teaching  them 
how  to  distinguish  between  all-wool,  part-wool,  or  cotton 
goods: 

3.  Essay  writing  contest  on  "The  Life  History  of 
Sheep." 

4.  Sheep  or  lamb  judging  contest. 

5.  Five-minute  extemporaneous  speaking  contest.  In 
this  contest  have  club  members  obtain  all  kinds  of  informa- 
tion with  a  view  to  making  a  speech  either  for  or  against  the 
production  of  sheep  on  the  average  farm  of  the  community. 
The  object  of  this  is  to  have  them  use  the  information  ob- 
tained from  the  text,  investigations,  etc.,  and  apply  this  by 
means  of  argument  to  their  own  farming  conditions. 

6.  Sheep  Club  Projects 

There  are  two  practical  club  projects  in  connection  with 
this  line  of  work:  the  mutton  production  club,  and  the 
wool  production  club. 

'  Mutton  production  club. — In  connection  with  this 
club  project  the  members  are  to  take  from  one  to  a  dozen 
spring  lambs  and  care  for  them,  keeping  a  record  for  a 


SHEEP  427 

definite  period  of  time,  with  a  view  to  preparing  them  for 
the  mutton  market.  The  basis  of  award  for  this  project 
may  be : 

1.  Net  profit   or   cost   of  production 30 

2.  Condition  of  lamb,  judged  by  score-card 30 

3.  Records  of  cost  of  labor,  feeding,  etc , 20 

4.  Story  of  "How  to  Produce  Mutton  Profitably" 20 

Total    score . 100 

Wool  production  club. — This  may  consist  of  taking 
care  of  one  or  more  sheep  for  a  year's  time,  and  may  require 
the  club  member  to  select  the  sheep  on  the  basis  of  high 
wool  production.  Keep  records  and  accounts  of  labor  and 
feed,  as  well  as  wool  receipts.  The  net  profit  on  investment 
is  to  come  from  the  returns  from  the  wool  rather  than  the 
mutton.    The  basis  of  award  may  be : 

1.  Net   profit    or    cost   of   production 30 

2.  Condition  and  quality  of  wool  produced 30 

3.  Exhibit  of  graded  samples  of  wool 20 

4.  Records    and    story    of    "How    to    Produce    High-grade 

Wool    Economically" 20 

Total    score 100 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
POULTRY 

THE  raising  of  poultry  is  considered  of  rather  incidental 
importance  on  most  farms.  A  few  chickens  are  kept 
for  supplying  the  table  with  fresh  eggs  and  an  occasional 
fowl.  Perhaps  a  flock  of  turkeys,  ducks  or  geese  are  added 
for  the  sake  of  variety.  Little  attention  is  usually  given  to 
the  possibility  of  large  profits  from  the  sale  of  eggs  and 
poultry. 

Yet,  in  spite  of  this  somewhat  haphazard  method  of 
treating  the  poultry  industry,  its  aggregate  returns  are  very 
large.  For  more  than  five  and  one-half  million  farms  have 
a  flock  of  chickens  or  other  fowl.  In  addition,  not  a  few 
people  in  villages  and  towns  keep  enough  fowl  for  home 
use. 

1.  Take  a  census  of  all  the  fowls  on  your  home  farm, 
dividing  into  chickens,  ducks,  geese,  turkeys,  etc. 

2.  How  many  of  each  class  are  in  their  first  year ;  sec- 
ond year;  third  year,  etc.? 

3.  Carefully  estimate  the  value  of  each  class  of  fowls, 
and  compute  the  total  value  of  all. 

•    1.    Distribution  of  Poultry  Production 

Nearly  five  hundred  million  fowls  are  kept  on  the  farm.s 
for  our  population.  Considerably  more  than  one  and  one- 
half  billion  dozen  eggs  are  produced  annually.  This  is 
enough  to  supply  every  man,  woman  and  child  with  fifteen 
dozen  eggs  per  year.  The  value  of  the  eggs  is  in  excess  of 
three  hundred  million  dollars  a  year,  or  sufficient  to  pay 

428 


POULTRY  429 

nearly  three-fourths  of  the  running  expenses  of  all  our 
public  schools.  The  fowls  themselves  are  worth  above  two 
hundred  million  dollars. 

The  ten  leading  poultry  states. — Ten  states  supply 
about  fifty-four  per  cent,  of  all  the  eggs  we  produce.  These 
states  are  Missouri,  Iowa,  Ohio,  lUinois,  Kansas,  Indiana, 
Texas,  Pennsylvania,  New  York  and  Michigan. 

The  percentage  of  the  entire  egg  crop  produced  by  each 
of  these  ten  states  is  as  follows : 

Missouri  7.0% 

Iowa  ■     6.9% 

Ohio  6.3% 

Illinois  6.3% 

Kansas  5.1% 

Indiana 5.1% 

Texas  4.9% 

Pennsylvania  4.7% 

New  York  4.6% 

Michigan  3.8% 

2.     Poultry  Raising  as  a  Farm  Industry 

There  are  several  good  reasons  why  the  raising  of  poul- 
try should  occupy  a  more  important  place  than  it  now  does 
on  most  of  our  farms  all  over  the  United  States,  especially 
in  the  South  and  West. 

Increasing  demands  for  eggs  and  poultry. — Eggs 
form  one  of  the  most  necessary  and  palatable  articles  of 
food.  With  improved  methods  of  shipping,  parcel  post 
service  and  cold  storage  they  have  increasingly  become  a 
staple  on  almost  every  table,  city  as  well  as  country.  The 
prices  are  high,  a  dozen  eggs  bringing  the  farmer  about  as 
much  as  a  pound  of  butter.  The  demand  for  fowl  as  a  sup- 
plement to  other  kinds  of  meat  has  also  greatly  increased, 
and  there  is  now  a  ready  market  throughout  the  year  for  all 
Ivinds  of  poultry  suitable  for  the  table. 


430  AGRICULTURE 

Low  cost  of  feeding  poultry. — A  fair-sized  flock  of 
poultry  can  be  kept  on  the  farm  with  but  little  expense  for 
feed.  This  is  because  fowl  will  gather  up  the  greater  part 
of  their  living  from  material  that  would  otherwise  be  wasted. 
Scattered  grain  from  the  feed  lots ;  undigested  grain  from 
farm  animals ;  weed  and  grass  seeds ;  grass  and  various 


A   year's  product  of  an  average  hen   and  a   good  hen.     The 
average  hen  hiid  75  eggs,  the  good  hen  223  eggs. 

green  plants  about  the  barn  lots,  worms,  bugs,  grasshoppers 
and  other  insect  pests  form  a  large  part  of  the  diet  of  farm 
poultry  during  most  of  the  year. 

The  labor  of  caring  for  poultry  is  light. — ^The  labor 
connected  with  poultry  raising  is  much  Hghter  than  with 
other  farm  animals.  Much  of  the  work  is  suited  to  the 
strength  and  interest  of  children,  and  gives  the  training  in 
responsibility  which  every  child  needs.  With  a  little  over- 
sight, children  from  ten  to  eighteen  years  can  successfully 
take  almost  entire  charge  of  poultry  raising  and  make  it 


POULTRY  431 

highly  profitable.  This  has  been  fully  demonstrated  in  many 
boys'  and  girls'  poultry  clubs  in  every  state. 

Quick  profits  are  realized. — The  profits  from  a  well 
managed  flock  of  chickens  are  not  only  liberal  and  certain, 
but  quick.  Chickens  are  ready  for  market  within  a  few 
months  from  the  time  they  are  hatched,  and  hens  are  at 
their  best  as  layers  during  the  first  and  second  years  of  their 
life.  And  the  eggs  afford  a  continuous  source  of  income 
to  meet  the  expense  of  any  feed  or  other  supplies  that  are 
bought,  or  to  add  to  the  bank  account. 

Almost  all  boys  and  girls  could  become  expert  chicken 
raisers  and,  by  making  arrangements  with  their  parents  to 
receive  a  share  of  the  income  from  the  flock,  earn  their 
own  money  for  a  farm,  clothes,  books,  schooling,  travel  or 
whatever  else  they  may  desire. 

3.    Breeds  of  Chickens 

According  to  experts  there  are  one  hundred  and  four 
standard  varieties  of  chickens  raised  in  the  United  States. 
There  are  many  other  varieties  not  sufficiently  developed  to 
be  called  standard.  For  practical  purposes  the  standard 
varieties  may  all  be  grouped  in  four  classes:  (1)  General 
purpose  breeds;  (2)  meat  or  table  breeds;  (3)  egg  breeds; 
(4)  ornamental  breeds. 

General  purpose  breeds. — The  general  purpose 
breeds  are  the  result  of  an  attempt  to  combine  egg-laying 
with  good  table  qualities.    The  favorites  of  these  breeds  are : 

Plymouth  Rocks,   Barred,  White  and  Buff. 

Wyandottes,  Silver,  Golden,  White,  Buff,  Black,  etc. 

Javas,   Black  and   Mottled. 

Dominiques,  Rose-comb. 

Rhode    Island    Reds,    Single-comb    and    Rose-comb. 

Buckeyes,   Pea-comb. 

Orpingtons,   Buff,   Black  and  White. 

Houdans,  Mottled. 


432 


AGRICULTURE 


k* 


Barred  Plymouth  Rocks. 


i 


Single-comb  Rhode  Island  Reds, 


POULTRY  433 

Meat  breeds. — The  meat,  or  table,  breeds  are  chiefly 
raised  for  the  large  markets.  They  must  be  of  good  shape 
and  size,  quick  growers  and  ready  fatteners.  The  principal 
breeds  of  this  class  are: 

Brahmas,  Light  and  Dark. 

Cochins,  Buff,  Partridge,  White  and  Black. 

Langshans,  Black  and  White.- 

Dorkings,  White,  Silver-gray  and  Colored. 

Indians,  White   Game. 

Egg  breeds. — The  prime  consideration  in  the  egg 
breeds  is  that  they  shall  be  good  layers,  begin  laying  young, 
and  continue  for  a  considerable  period  of  time.  The  chief 
breeds  are: 

Leghorns,  Brown,  Buff,  White,  Black,  etc. 

Minorcas,  Black  and  White. 

Spanish,   White-faced   Black. 

Andalusians,  Blue. 

Anconas,  Mottled. 

Hamburgs,  Gold  and  Silver  Spangled,  White  and  Black. 

Redcaps,   Rose-comb. 

Ornamental  breeds. — The  ornamental  breeds  are  not 
important  for  practical  farm  purposes.  Some  of  the  favor- 
ites of  these  breeds  are : 

Polish,  White-crested  Black,  Golden,  Silver,  White,  Golden. 

Crevecoeurs,   Black. 

La  Fleche,  Black. 

Bantams. 

Games. 

It  is  best  not  to  mix  breeds  of  chickens.  First  one  should 
decide  what  class  is  desired,  whether  egg,  meat,  or  general 
purpose.  Then  a  pure  breed  of  this  class  should  be  selected, 
and  the  strain  kept  free  from  mixture  with  other  breeds. 


434 


AGRICULTURE 


Single-comb  Buff  Orpingtons. 


Black  Laugshans. 


POULTRY  435 

1.  Are  the  chickens  on  your  farm  pure  bred,  grade,  or 
scrub  ?  What  breed  or  breeds  do  you  use  ?  Is  this  an  egg, 
meat  or  general  purpose  breed? 

2.  What  steps  could  be  taken  to  improve  the  breed? 
Would  this  not  pay?  Do  e:gg  or  table  breeds  return  most 
profit  under  farm  conditions? 

4.    Producing  Chickens 

A  successful  hatch  depends  (1)  on  securing  fertile  iln- 
injured  eggs,  and  (2)  on  proper  incubation. 

Eggs  for  hatching. — Heredity  has  its  effect  in  fowl  as 
well  as  other  animals.  The  eggs  for  hatching  should  there- 
fore come  from  the  choicest  and  most  vigorous  members 
of  the  flock.  The  best  plan  is  to  separate  from  the  main 
flock  a  sufficient  number  of  desirable  hens  to  produce  the 
eggs  required  for  setting.  These  can  be  kept  by  them- 
selves until  the  hatching  season  is  over. 

In  order  that  eggs  may  hatch  at  all  they  must  be  fertile. 
They  are  made  fertile  by  the  presence  of  a  male  bird  in 
the  flock  during  the  laying  season.  One  male  should  be 
supplied  for  every  ten  or  twelve  hens.  Since  one-half  of  the 
heredity  of  the  entire  flock  is  dependent  on  the  male  bird, 
he  should  be  pure  bred,  the  best  of  his  kind,  young  and 
vigorous. 

Care  of  eggs  before  setting. — ^Eggs  should  be  fresh 
when  they  are  set,  never  more  than  two  weeks  old,  and 
better  if  not  more  than  a  few  days  from  the  nest.  They 
should  be  kept  rather  cool,  a  suitable  temperature  being 
between  fifty  and  sixty  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Eggs  that  have 
been  badly  chilled  will  not  hatch.  It  is  necessary,  therefore, 
that  eggs  intended  for  hatching  shall  be  gathered  at  fre- 
quent intervals  during  cold  weather.  Many  poultrymen 
think  it  is  best  to  turn  the  eggs  over  every  day  or  so  during 
the  time  they  are  stored  before  setting.  They  should  never 
be  jarred  or  shaken. 


436 


AGRICULTURE 


Hatching  with  the  hen. — Eggs  may  be  successfully 
hatched  either  with  a  hen  or  an  incubator.  If  the  hatch  is 
not  to  consist  of  more  than  from  one  hundred  to  two  hun- 
dred chicks,  and  if  the  hens  come  of  a  breed  of  good  setters, 
it  is  doubtful  whether  it  pays  to  use  an  incubator. 

Only  quiet,  motherly  hens  of  good  disposition  should  be 
used  for  setting.  The  nest  should  be  made  of  a  box  from 
fourteen  to  sixteen  inches  square,  and  six  inches  deep.  Four 


Light  Brahmas. 


inches  of  earth  should  be  placed  in  the  box,  hollowed  slight- 
ly, and  covered  with  chaff  or  straw.  The  broody  hen  should 
be  removed  to  the  nest  at  night  and  given  a  few  china  eggs 
for  a  day  or  two  to  make  sure  that  she  is  in  condition  for 
sitting.  From  thirteen  to  fifteen  eggs  may  then  be  given 
her  for  the  hatch.  It  is  well  to  dust  both  hen  and  nest  with 
insect  powder  to  destroy  vermin.  The  sitting  hen  should 
be  well  fed  on  such  grains  as  corn,  wheat,  or  oats,  have 


POULTRY 


437 


plenty  of  fresh  water,  and  be  let  off  the  nest  a  short  time 
each  day  for  exercise  and  a  dust  bath. 

Hatching   with   the   incubator. — Although   there   are 
many  different  makes  of  incubators,  they  all  supply  the  heat 


A  home-made  egg  tester. 


necessary  for  hatching  by  one  of  two  methods,  either  hot 
air,  or  hot  water.  All  of  the  standard  makes  will  be  found 
satisfactory,  though  the  hot-air  type  seems  less  likely  to  get 
out  of  order. 


438  AGRICULTURE 

Success  with  the  incubator  depends  much  more  on  the 
operator  than  the  machine.  For  unless  the  temperature  and 
ventilation  are  kept  right,  the  eggs  properly  turned,  and 
other  necessary  conditions  met,  the  hatch  is  sure  to  fail. 
The  directions  supplied  with  the  machine  must  be  faith- 
fully followed,  else  one  need  not  hope  for  success. 

Testing  for  infertile  eggs. — About  the  sixth  day  after 
setting  the  eggs  should  be  tested  and  the  infertile  ones  re- 
moved. The  testing  may  be  done  by  placing  a  small  lamp 
or  a  lantern  in  a  box  through  one  side  of  which  just  oppo- 
side  the  light  a  hole  has  been  cut  somewhat  smaller  than 
an  tgg.  The  testing  should  be  done  in  the  dark,  preferably 
at  night.  The  tgg  is  held  against  the  opening  in  front  of 
the  light.  As  the  light  shines  through,  the  infertile  eggs 
will  appear  clear,  while  the  fertile  ^gg  will  show  a  network 
of  threads  leading  out  from  a  center,  and  floating  about 
as  the  egg  is  turned.  If  a  number  of  hens  were  set  at  the 
same  time,  and  many  infertile  eggs  are  found,  one  hen 
may  be  released,  or  given  a  new  supply,  and  the  fertile 
eggs  distributed  among  the  others. 

Care  of  newly  hatched  chicks. — The  chicks  first 
hatched  from  a  setting  should  be  removed  from  the  nest 
in  about  twenty-four  hours.  If  they  are  not,  they  will  begin 
to  leave  the  nest  themselves,  and  the  hen  is  likely  to  deset-t 
the  nest  before  all  the  eggs  are  hatched.  The  chicks  must 
be  kept  warm  and  comfortable  until  the  mother  is  ready  for 
them. 

When  the  hatching  is  done  in  an  incubator,  the  chicks 
are  left  for  twenty-four  hours  after  hatching  and  then  re- 
moved to  the  brooder,  which  must  be  at  a  temperature  of 
from  ninety  to  ninety-five  degrees  Fahrenheit.  By  the  time 
the  chicks  are  a  month  old  the  brooder  may  be  brought 
gradually  down  to  seventy  degrees. 


POULTRY  439 

1.  Is  any  care  taken  in  raising  chickens  on  your  farm 
toward  selecting  eggs  from  the  best  hens  for  setting?  Is 
care  taken  to  use  only  the  best  male  birds? 

2.  Draw  a  plan  for  a  suitable  nest  for  a  sitting  hen, 
showing  covered  runway. 

3.  Do  you  make  the  test  for  infertile  eggs  after  the 
hens  have  been  set  about  a  week  ?  How  do  you  tell  whether 
the  Qgg  has  started  to  hatch  ? 

5.    Feedmg  Chickens 

Feeding  young  chickens. — For  the  first  forty-eight 
hours  after  hatching  the  young  chick  needs  no  feed  of  any 
kind.  Nature  had  provided  for  this  period  by  having  the  yolk 
of  the  Qgg  absorbed  into  the  abdomen  of  the  chick  just  before 
it  is  hatched.  This  food  must  be  used  up  before  the  chick 
is  ready  for  more. 

The  first  food  given  the  chicks  may  be  stale  bread  soaked 
in  milk  and  squeezed  dry;  hard  boiled  eggs  chopped  fine, 
shell  and  all ;  or  cracked  corn,  wheat  or  oats.  A  good  grain 
ration  for  chicks  is  made  of  equal  parts  of  cracked  com, 
cracked  wheat  and  cut  oats  fed  five  times  a  day.  An  excel- 
lent supplementary  ration  to  hasten  growth  is  the  follow- 
ing :  Bran,  ten  pounds ;  shorts,  ten  pounds ;  cornmeal,  five 
pounds ;  meat  scraps,  five  pounds ;  charcoal,  two  and  one- 
half  pounds;  grit,  one  and  one-half  pounds.  This  mixture 
may  either  be  fed  wet  or  dry.  Plenty  of  sour  milk  will  add 
greatly  to  the  effectiveness  of  the  ration.  Green  foods 
should  also  be  supplied  from  the  first. 

Feeding  laying  hens. — Hens,  like  other  animals,  do 
best  on  a  ration  balanced  to  meet  their  needs.  There  is 
no  one  best  ration,  since  the  necessary  food  elements  can  be 
obtained  from  many  different  sources.  It  is  certain,  how- 
ever, that  fowls  require  grain,  meat,  or  milk,  mill  feeds 
such  as  shorts,  or  bran,  green  foods,  sharp  grit,  shell  and 
water. 


440 


AGRICULTURE 


The  following  is  recommended  as  a  well  balanced  lay- 
ing ration,  though  wheat  may  be  left  out  and  more  corn 
and  oats  added,  or  milk  supplied  instead  of  the  meat  scraps. 
(Purdue  Extension  Bulletin,  10.) 

Grain  Dry  Mash 


10  pounds  of  corn. 

10  pounds  of  wheat. 

5  pounds  of  oats. 


5      pounds  of  bran. 

5      pounds  of  shorts. 

3V2  pounds  of  meat  scraps. 


The  grain  is  fed  in  a  litter  of  straw  night  and  morning, 
and  the  mash  left  before  the  fowls  the  greater  part  of  the 


A  well-arranged  interior,  showing  nests  and  feeding  equipment. 

day.  Green  food  is  added  to  this  ration.  Grit,  charcoal 
and  oyster  shells  are  to  be  fed  in  a  hopper  to  which  the 
fowls  should  have  access  all  the  time. 

Feeding  chickens  for  fattening. — Chickens  should  be 
specially  fattened  for  market.  Not*  only  is  weight  added, 
but  the  quality  of  the  meat  greatly  improved  by  fattening. 


POULTRY  441 

and  a  higher  price  obtained.  When  unfattened  chickens 
are  selling  at  ten  cents,  the  same  fowls  when  fattened  will 
bring  fifteen  cents  in  the  city  markets. 

Both  the  pen  and  the  crate  method  of  fattening  are  used. 
Pen  fattening  requires  less  time  and  attention  than  crate 
fattening.  The  fattening  pen  should  be  kept  darkened  ex- 
cept at  feeding  time,  in  order  that  the  chickens  may  remain 
quiet.  A  suitable  ration  is  fed  at  regular  intervals,  and  in 
as  large  quantities  as  the  fowls  will  eat  in  from  twenty  to 
thirty  minutes. 

Crate  feeding. — More  rapid  fattening  is  possible  by 
placing  from  six  to  nine  chickens  in  a  crate.  The  fowls  are 
given  a  regular  ration,  and  kept  from  all  exercise.  About 
two  weeks  is  the  average  time  required  for  fattening.  An 
excellent  fattening  ration  may  be  compounded  as  follows : 

10  pounds  of  cornmeal. 

5  pounds  of  shorts. 

5  pounds  of  ground  oats. 
40  pounds  of  buttermilk. 

Cramming. — Poultrymen  who  make  a  business  of  fat- 
tening for  city  markets  often  use  the  cramming  system  of 
feeding.  This  method  is  based  on  the  fact  that  chickens 
will  not  eat  so  much  as  they  can  assimilate  and  use  in  mak- 
ing fat.  The  fowl  is  taken  from  the  pen  or  crate  and  held 
while  soft  food  is  pressed  down  the  throat  into  the  crop,  or 
passed  into  the  crop  by  means  of  a  tube  attached  to  a 
cramming  machine.  This  forcible  feeding  will  considerably 
hasten  the  fattening  process. 

6.    Producing  and  Marketing  Eggs 

Properly  handled  eggs  are  the  most  profitable  part  of 
the  poultry  business  on  the  farm.  It  is  therefore  well  to 
study  the  conditions  necessary  to  the  largest  production  of 


442  AGRICULTURE 

eggs.  The  number  of  eggs  produced  by  a  flock  depends 
(1)  on  the  breed,  whether  of  the  laying,  or  meat,  type;  (2) 
on  the  feed,  whether  it  consists  of  a  balanced  ration  con- 
taining the  elements  required  by  the  egg;  and  (3)  the 
housing  and  care. 

Profitable  layers. — There  is  a  great  difference  in  the 
laying  qualities  not  only  of  different  breeds,  but  also  of 
individual  hens.  An  average  grade  or  scrub  hen  will  lay 
about  seventy-five  eggs  in  a  year ;  a  high-class  hen  of  a  lay- 
ing breed,  more  than  two  hundred.  These  two  hens  eat  the 
same  amount  of  food,  take  the  same  amount  of  room,  and 
require  the  same  amount  of  care.  The  one  hardly  pays  for 
her  keep,  the  other  makes  possible  a  handsome  profit.  It 
will  pay  every  farmer  to  weed  out  the  poor  layers  from 
his  flock,  and  fill  their  places  with  productive  hens. 

Age  and  egg  production. — Young  hens  are  the  best 
layers.  Only  in  the  case  of  exceptional  layers  should  hens 
be  kept  after  they  are  two  years  old.  Hens  that  have 
passed  their  second  year  will  continue  laying  and  produce 
a  fair  number  of  eggs,  but  younger  hens  will  produce  more 
eggs,  and  should  therefore  take  the  place  of  the  older  ones. 

Pullets  should  begin  laying  in  the  fall  of  their  first  year. 
In  order  that  they  may  do  this,  it  is  necessary  to  have  them 
hatched  out  early  in  the  preceding  spring,  preferably  not 
later  than  March  or  April,  and  about  two  months  earlier  in 
the  South.  They  should  then  lay  throughout  the  winter, 
and  be  at  their  best  the  following  summer. 

The  quality  of  eggs. — Eggs  are  rated  commercially 
according  to  size  as  extras  when  the  weight  is  from  twenty- 
six  to  twenty-eight  ounces  to  the  dozen ;  as  firsts  when  they 
weigh  from  twenty-four  to  twenty-six  ounces  to  the  dozen ; 
and  as  seconds  when  they  weigh  less  than  twenty-four 
ounces.  In  some  places  eggs  are  now  sold  by  weight.  For 
these  reasons  the  size  is  of  great  importance. 


POULTRY  443 

To  command  the  highest  price,  eggs  should  also  be  uni- 
form in  shape  and  color,  the  shell  smooth  and  free  from 
spots,  and  clean  without  having  been  washed.  Tested  with 
the  candler  the  air  cell  should  be  no  larger  than  a  dime, 
thus  indicating  freshness ;  the  contents  must  appear  opaque, 
the  yolks  barely  visible,  and  free  from  any  discoloring ;  the 
white  must  show  thick  and  compact,  the  yolk  not  floating 
about. 

1.  Make  a  candler  test  as  described  in  the  text,  and 
learn  to  tell  fresh  from  stale  eggs;  fertile  from  infertile 
eggs. 

2.  Score  the  eggs  collected  for  several  days  from  your 
farm  hens.  How  many  extras;  -firsts;  seconds f  How  many 
were  dirty?    What  was  the  average  score? 

Effect  of  infertility  on  quality. — No  eggs  except  those 
intended  for  hatching  should  be  fertile.  This  is  because 
infertile  eggs  keep  much  longer  and  in  better  flavor  than 
fertile  eggs.  If  a  fertile  egg  is  allowed  to  stand  in  a  warm 
temperature  for  two  or  three  days  it  begins  to  develop 
blood-rings;  that  is,  it  begins  to  develop  the  young.  This 
process  is  sure  to  go  on  during  the  marketing  and  shipping, 
thus  greatly  reducing  the  value  of  the  eggs.  The  infertile 
egg  is  free  from  all  this  difficulty,  and  will  keep  fresh  much 
longer. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  loss  from  allowing  eggs  to  be- 
come fertilized  is  more  than  fifteen  million  dollars  annually 
in  the  United  States.  All  male  birds  should  therefore  be 
kept  away  from  laying  hens  when  the  eggs  are  to  be  used  or 
sold.  This  will  have  no  effect  on  the  number  of  eggs  pro- 
duced. 

Rules  for  egg  production. — The  following  rules  for 
egg  production  are  given  by  the  Poultry  Division  of  the 
United  States  Departmeint  of  Agriculture: 


444  AGRICULTURE 

1.  Keep  the  nests  clean;  provide  one  nest  for  each  four 

hens. 

2.  Gather  the  eggs  twice  daily. 

3.  Keep  the  eggs  in  a  cool  dry  room  or  cellar. 

4.  Market  the  eggs  at  least  twice  a  week. 

5.  Market,   kill   or   confine  all   male   birds   as    soon  as   the 

hatching  season  is  over. 

7.     Housing  the  Poultry 

There  are  almost  as  many  different  styles  of  poultry 
houses  as  dwelling  houses.  The  exact  form  of  the  poultry 
house  is  not  important,  though  some  types  are  more  pleas- 
ing in  appearance  and  less  expensive  than  others.  Every 
state  agricultural  college  has  plans  for  poultry  houses 
adapted  to  the  region  and  will  be  glad  to  supply  these  to 
citizens  of  the  state.  No  matter  what  the  style,  however, 
certain  fundamental  requirements  should  be  met  by  all 
poultry  houses. 

Drainage. — Poultry  are  especially  sensitive  to  unhy- 
gienic surroundings.  Impurities  arising  from  ground  sat- 
urated with  unclean  seepage,  and  dampness  coming  from 
undrained  soil  are  sure  to  injure  the  fowls.  The  poultry 
house  should  be  built  on  well  drained  ground.  Drain  tile 
should  be  used  to  carry  the  water  away  if  necessary. 

Room. — In  many  instances  a  flock  of  chickens  are 
crowded  into  a  space  far  too  small  for  them,  and  the 
owner  then  wonders  why  they  do  not  thrive  well  or  lay 
eggs.  The  amount  of  floor  space  should  be  from  four  to  five 
square  feet  for  each  bird.  If  there  is  free  access  to  a  shel- 
tered yard,  somewhat  less  than  this  may  serve,  but  better 
sell  part  of  the  flock  than  overcrowd  them  in  small  pens. 

Ventilation. — Chickens  require  far  more  air  accord- 
ing to  their  weight  than  larger  animals.  Confinement  in 
close,  ill-smelling  rooms  is  certain  to  lower  their  vitality, 
bring  on  diseases,  and  interfere  with  laying.     In  climates 


POULTRY 


445 


Brood  coops  set  ou  clean  fresh  ground.    This  flock  is  in  little 
danger  of  disease. 


A  practical  hen  house  for  the  farm.    Amherst,  Massachusetts. 


446  AGRICULTURE 

where  the  poultry  house  can  not  have  an  open  front,  two 
or  more  sashes  should  be  covered  with  muslin  instead  of 
being  glazed,  and  hung  on  hinges  so  that  the  window  may 
be  thrown  open  in  good  weather.  In  bad  weather  the  sash 
may  be  closed  and  yet  admit  sufficient  air.  Drafts  should 
never  strike  chickens  either  while  they  are  on  the  roost  or 
the  floor. 

Sunlight. — Sunlight  is  the  best  of  disinfectants.  The 
poultry  house  should  front  the  south,  and  have  a  reason- 
able number  of  glazed  windows  besides  the  muslin  sashes. 
Too  much  glass  makes  the  house  excessively  hot  in  the 
summer  and  very  cold  in  the  winter;  too  little  glass  leaves 
the  quarters  dark  and  gloomy,  hinders  the  chickens  in  feed- 
ing, and  encourages  disease. 

Freedom  from  dampness. — When  frost  gathers  heav- 
ily inside  the  poultry  house  in  cold  weather  it  shows  too 
great  a  degree  of  dampness.  This  may  come  from  the 
ground  floor,  or  lack  of  ventilation  and  sunlight.  If  a  soil 
floor  is  used,  there  should  first  be  filled  in  several  inches 
of  broken  rock.  On  top  of  this  may  be  placed  a  coating  of 
cinders,  and  over  the  cinders  a  layer  of  soil.  The  soil  floor 
at  its  best  is  hard  to  keep  clean,  dry  and  free  from  odors. 
Cement  makes  an  excellent  floor,  as  it  can  easily  be  washed. 
Over  the  cement  should  be  spread  four  inches  of  straw  or 
hay. 

Comfortable  roosts. — Fowls  spend  much  time  on  the 
roosts.  It  is  therefore  important  that  the  roosts  be  com- 
fortable. Roosts  may  be  made  from  two-by-two-inch  stuff, 
rounded  on  the  upper  edges;  they  should  be  placed  about 
two  and  one-half  feet  from  the  floor.  Eight  inches  below 
the  roosts  should  be  a  removable  board  or  floor  to  catch 
the  droppings. 

Nests. — The  nests  may  be  built  in  a  series  along  the 
side,  or,  better  still,  under  the  dropping  board.     Hens  lay 


POULTRY 


447 


best  in  a  secluded  place.  The  nests  should  therefore  be 
covered,  and  sufficiently  enclosed  to  make  them  partially 
dark.  Openings  through  the  outer  wall  large  enough  to 
admit  the  hand  into  the  nests  will  allow  the  gathering  of 
the  eggs  without  entering  the  building.  Care  must  be 
taken,  however,  to  provide  a  way  to  close  these  holes  so 
that  drafts  may  not  strike  the  nests. 

Colony  houses. — Colony  houses  are  small  buildings 
intended  for   from  fifteen  to   twenty-five   fowls,   and   are 


Colony  houses  and  runs  for  ducks.     Massachusetts. 

movable.  They  may  be  constructed  on  the  same  plan  as  the 
larger  building,  and  are  placed  on  sills  or  runners  so  that 
they  may  be  dragged  from  place  to  place  with  a  team. 
Poultrymen  who  use  colony  houses  move  them  frequently, 
thus  securing  better  hygienic  conditions.  The  colony  house 
is  especially  desirable  for  hens  with  broods  of  chickens. 
Many  large  poultry  raisers  use  both  the  permanent  building 
and  the  colony  house  for  their  flocks. 

8.     Poultry  Diseases 
The  poultryman's   aim   should  be   to  prevent   diseases 
rather  than  cure  them  in  his  fiock.     For  a  fowl  sick  with 

30 


448  AGRICULTURE 

any  serious  disease  is  hard  to  treat,  and  the  bird  should 
usually  be  killed  at  once  to  save  time  in  caring  for  it  and 
the  danger  of  infecting  others. 

Sanitation  in  the  poultry  yard. — Chickens  are  subject 
to  a  number  of  diseases  that  depend  chiefly  on  lack  of 
cleanliness  around  the  premises.  Lice  and  various  para- 
sitic mites  attack  little  chicks  or  older  fowls  alike.  Fre- 
quent whitewashing  of  the  poultry  house,  washing  the  roosts 
with  kerosene,  and  spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion  such 
as  is  used  for  fruit  trees,  are  some  of  the  preventives  for 
these  pests. 

A  simple  and  effective  lice  powder  is  made  of  one  pint  of 
tobacco  dust  mixed  with  two  quarts  of  fine  road  dust.  Sul- 
phur may  be  used  in  place  of  the  tobacco  dust,  and  finely 
sifted  hard  coal  ashes  in  place  of  the  road  dust.  The  soil  of  a 
poultry  yard  should  occasionally  be  sprayed  with  kerosene 
emulsion,  or  coated  with  whitewash  after  all  refuse  has 
been  removed.  If  the  ground  is  plowed  or  spaded  late  in 
the  fall  and  allowed  to  freeze  during  the  winter  many  para- 
sites and  disease  germs  will  be  destroyed. 

White  diarrhea. — This  is  a  disease  affecting  young 
chicks  within  the  first  four  days  of  their  life.  They  are 
most  subject  to  attack  the  first  twenty-four  hours,  and  im- 
mune after  ninety-six  hours.  The  disease  is  caused  by  a 
bacterium  found  in  the  egg  laid  by  a  hen  that  carries  the 
germs  in  her  body.  It  may  also  be  caught  by  contagion 
from  chicks  that  have  the  disease,  or  from  contact  with  in- 
cubators where  the  germs  have  lodged.  There  is  at  present 
no  successful  remedy.  A  good  measure  of  prevention  is  to 
keep  incubators,  brooders  and  all  feeding  utensils  disin- 
fected. 

Doctor  Knapp,  of  the  North  Carolina  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, recommends  the  following  as  a  good  remedy  for  the 
disease : 


POULTRY  449 

Zinc    sulphocarbonate    15       grains 

Calcium  sulphocarbonate   lY^  grains 

Sodium    sulphocarbonate    IVt.  grains 

Bichloride   of    mercury 6       grains 

Citric   acid   3       grains 

This  amount  is  considered  one  dose,  and  should  be  mixed 
with  one  gallon  of  water  and  used  for  drinking  purposes 
during  the  first  month.  After  this  the  chicks  should  have 
it  two  times  a  week  for  two  weeks. 

Gapes. — Gapes  is  another  disease  attacking  young 
chicks.  It  is  caused  by  a  small  worm  picked  up  from  the 
soil.  The  worms  attach  themselves  to  the  inner  walls  of 
the  windpipe,  where  they  draw  their  food  from  the  blood 
of  the  chick,  thereby  weakening  it,  and  also  clogging  the 
passage  so  that  the  chick  gasps  for  breath. 

Here  again  prevention  is  a  question  of  sanitation.  If 
the  soil  is  free  of  the  worms,  there  will  be  no  gapes  in  the 
chickens.  It  is  well,  therefore,  to  keep  the  young  chicks 
on  clean  new  ground  on  which  former  broods  have  not  been 
raised. 

Cholera. — Several  different  kinds  of  germs  commonly 
found  in  the  intestines  of  chickens  may,  under  certain  con- 
ditions, cause  diseases  known  as  cholera.  True  chicken 
cholera  is  caused  only  by  one  particular  germ,  however. 
Cholera  is  contracted  by  contact  with  fowls  sick  with  the 
disease,  by  germs  carried  by  new  birds  brought  into  the 
flock,  by  germs  brought  by  wild  birds  that  alight  in  the  poul- 
try yard,  or  dogs  and  other  animals  that  roam  from  place 
to  place. 

It  does  not  pay  to  try  to  cure  fowls  that  have  contracted 
the  disease.  It  is  best  to  kill  them  at  once,  burning  or 
deeply  burying  the  bodies.  Care  should  mostly  center  on 
prevention.  First  of  all,  the  flock  must  have  sanitary  sur- 
roundings— good  air,  sunshine,  quarters  that  are  dry  and 
clean,  and  should  have  suitable  food. 


450 


AGRICULTURE 


The  poultry  house  and  yard  must  be  frequently  disin- 
fected.    New  fowls  brought  into  the  flock  must  be  kept  by 


^7tY 


RADDLE  -^ 
FSATKS2S 


/■■"-'t   \ , 


y^^<^^". 


The  parts  of  a*  chicken. 


^tta^S 


themselves  for  a  week  to  make  sure  they  do  not  carry  in- 
fection. Stray  animals  should  be  shut  from  the  chicken 
yard.  The  careful  following  of  these  simple  precautions 
will  greatly  lessen  the  danger  from  chicken  cholera. 


POULTRY  451 

Roup. — This  is  but  another  name  for  a  kind  of  con- 
tagious catarrh  among  poultry  which  closely  resembles  in- 
fluenza, or  grippe,  in  man.  Roup  is  thought  to  be  contracted 
only  by  contact  with  infected  birds.  It  attacks  the  mem- 
branes of  the  eye,  mouth  and  throat,  causing  inflammation 
and  a  sticky  discharge.  The  disease  is  accompanied  by 
high  fever.  Roup  may  be  brought  into  the  flock  by  newly 
purchased  birds,  by  fowls  that  have  been  taken  to  poultry 
shows,  or  by  pigeons  and  other  wild  birds. 

Roup  is  one  of  few  poultry  diseases  that  may  be  suc- 
cessfully treated.  The  sick  fowl  should  be  separated  from 
the  flock  and  given  a  warm,  dry,  well-ventilated  place.  All 
the  affected  parts  should  be  washed  with  some  antiseptic 
mixture.  This  may  be  done  with  a  spray,  or  by  plunging 
the  head  into  the  liquid  wash.  The  following  are  suitable 
washes : 

1.  Boric  acid,  1  ounce;  water,  1  quart,  or 

2.  Permanganate  of  potash,  1  dram;  water,  1  quart,  or 

3.  Peroxide  or  hydrogen  1  ounce;  water,  3  ounces. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Taking  into  account  both  what  the  chickens  on  your 
farm  are  fed  and  what  they  pick  up,  make  a  list  of  what 
goes  into  the  ration  of  your  flock.  Compare  with  the  ra- 
tions given  in  the  chapter.  Is  any  element  lacking  in  what 
your  chickens  are  getting  ? 

2.  Estimate  as  carefully  as  you  can  the  value  of  the 
feed  given  your  chickens  in  one  year;  now  estimate  the 
value  of  the  eggs  and  meat  yielded  by  your  flock.  What 
do  you  conclude?  Would  it  pay  to  keep  a  strict  account  of 
the  expense  and  income  of  your  flock  for  several  months  or 
a  year,  so  you  would  know  how  you  are  coming  out? 

3.  Estimate  as  closely  as  you  can  the  number  of  eggs 
produced  in  a  year  by  your  flock.  How  many  eggs  does 
this  average  per  hen  ?    Is  this  a  good  average  ? 

4.  If  the  average  egg  production  from  your  flock  is 
low,  what  is  the  cause:  breed,  age,  care,  or  feeding?  What 


452  AGRICULTURE 

would  need  to  be  done  to  improve  the  record  ?    How  many 
hens  have  you  more  than  two  years  old? 

5.  Suppose  you  have  for  market  fifty  chickens  that, 
without  special  fattening,  will  average  five  pounds  each, 
and  will  bring  ten  cents  a  pound.  Now  also  suppose  that 
by  two  weeks  of  crate  or  close-yard  feeding  you  can  in- 
crease the  average  weight  one  pound  for  each  bird,  and  get 
fifteen  cents  a  pound  for  the  lot.  If  the  feed  used  is  just 
balanced  by  the  increase  in  weight,  what  would  be  the  gain 
from  fattening? 

6.  Select  several  fertile  and  several  infertile  eggs,  and 
place  them  where  they  will  keep  at  a  temperature  of  eighty 
to  ninety  degrees ;  examine  with  the  candler  after  twenty- 
four  hours;  after  forty-eight  hours;  after  seventy-two 
hours;  after  ninety-six  hours.  What  do  you  conclude  as 
to  the  keeping  qualities  of  fertile  eggs,  and  that  of  infertile 
eggs? 

7.  Make  a  drawing  of  your  farm  poultry  house,  show- 
ing all  doors,  windows,  roosts,  dropping  boards,  nests,  etc. 
How  does  the  building  compare  with  the  requirements  given 
in  the  chapter?     What  needs  to  be  done? 

8.  Talk  with  your  father  and  mother  about  allowing 
you  to  take  charge  of  a  part  or  all  of  the  poultry  for  a 
season,  sharing  the  income.  Then  study  all  the  helps  you 
can  find,  and  make  a  record  for  yourself  and  big  profits 
for  both. 

9.  Show  proper  methods  of  keeping  poultry  records. 
Include  in  the  items,  cost  of  labor,  feed,  marketing,  trade 
marks,  egg  stamps,  parcel-post  cases,  egg  production,  receipts 
from  spring  settings  of  eggs,  cold  storage  costs,  and  poultr^^ 
equipment. 

10.  Show  on  the  map  of  the  United  States  the  poultry 
sections,  and  indicate  the  poultry  production  both  in  number 
of  poultry  of  various  kinds  and  the  egg  production,  as 
shown  in  the  list  census  report. 

9.     Poultry  Demonstrations 

1.  Demonstrate  how  to  make  equipment  of  various 
kinds,  such  as  water  and  feeding  troughs,  colony  house,  trap 
nests,  roosts  and  dropping  boards. 


POULTRY  453 

2.  Demonstrate  how  to  test   eggs  by  candling,   using 
a  pasteboard  box  and  a  lamp. 

3.  How  to  pack  eggs  to  ship  by  parcel-post  and  for 
cold  storage.   How  to  mark  or  stamp  individual  eggs. 

4.  How  to  operate  an  incubator. 

5.  How  to  handle  a  sitting  hen. 


A  Minnesota  club  boy  with  his  flock  and  colony  house. 

10.     Poultry  Play  Contests 

1.  Egg  race,  conducted  on  the  same  plan  as  potato 
race. 

2.  Poultry  judging  contests.    Use  score-card. 

3.  Egg  scoring  contest.    Use  commercial  score-card. 

4.  Breed  variety  naming  contest. 

5.  Drawing  contest.  In  this  contest  all  kinds  of  equip- 
ment, different  breeds  of  poultry,  poultry  houses,  runs,  etc., 
may  be  used  as  a  basis. 


454  AGRICULTURE 

11.     Poultry  Club  Project 

One  of  the  most  interesting  club  projects  to  be  under- 
taken by  the  boys  and  girls  is  the  poultry  club  work.  The 
project  may  start  with  three  settings  of  fifteen  eggs  each, 
or  the  management  of  a  pen  of  chickens  consisting  of  seven 
pullets  and  one  cockerel  for  a  full  season  or  year. 

A  four-year  project. — ^The  poultry  club  work  should 
include,  if  possible,  a  four-year  project  in  order  to  encour- 
age the  use  of  the  first  year's  results  to  the  greatest  possi- 
ble advantage.  The  second  year  club  members  should  raise 
at  least  fifteen  pure-bred  pullets  and  two  cockerels,  and 
hatch  at  least  four  settings  of  eggs  from  the  fifteen  pullets. 
The  third  year  the  project  should  be  based  on  twenty-five 
pullets  and  two  cockerels  and  the  hatching  of  at  least  five 
settings  of  eggs.  The  fourth  year,  thirty  pullets  and  three 
cockerels  and  the  hatching  of  at  least  six  settings  of  eggs. 

Exhibit  and  award. — For  the  first  year  club  members 
must  agree  to  exhibit  one  dozen  eggs  from  the  club  poultry 
and  a  pen  of  at  least  five  chickens — four  pullets  and  one 
cockerel — ^^and  each  subsequent  year,  two  dozen  eggs  and  a 
pen  of  at  least  four  pullets  and  one  cockerel  at  the  state,  dis- 
trict or  county  fair.  The  basis  of  award  for  each  succeed- 
ing year  should  be  determined  as  soon  as  project  is 
started.  Secure  the  poultry  club  instructions  from  the  state 
college  of  agriculture  and  use  the  basis  of  award  furnished 
by  your  state  director  of  boys'  and  girls'  extension  work. 

It  is  recommended  that  whenever  possible  a  pen  of 
chickens  be  kept  on  the  school  grounds  as  property  of  the 
school,  and  turned  over  to  the  care  of  certain  club  mem- 
bers during  the  summer  vacation  period. 


PART  V,    FARM  ECONOMICS 


CHAPTER  XXX 
FARM  AND  HOME  MANAGEMENT 

FARMING,  like  banking  or  running  a  railroad,  requires 
good  business  management.  Not  only  hard  work,  but 
careful  planning  is  necessary  to  success.  Brains  are  com- 
ing to  be  quite  as  essential  on  a  modern  farm  as  muscle. 

1.     Planning  the  Farm  and  Its  Work 

In  Europe,  land  is  high  and  labor  cheap;  in  the  United 
States,  land  is  comparatively  cheap  and  labor  expensive. 
The  first  principle  fpr  the  American  farmer  therefore  is 
so  to  select  his  farm  and  organize  its  enterprises  as  to  make 
the  best  possible  use  of  the  labor  available  upon  it.  This  is 
to  say  that  the  farm  enterprise  should  be  so  diversified  as  to 
give  the  largest  possible  number  of  working  days  during  the 
year  to  the  family,  hired  help,  teams  and  machinery.  Idle- 
ness soon  eats  up  the  profits  of  labor,  whether  it  be  that  of 
man,  beast  or  machine. 

Selecting  and  planning  the  farm. — The  farm  should 
be  carefully  selected  with  reference  (1)  to  its  soil;  (2)  its 
adaptability  to  the  enterprises  to  be  entered  into,  such  as 
stock  raising  or  cropping;  (3)  its  nearness  to  markets, 
school,  church  and  neighbors ;  (4)  the  length  of  season  and 

455 


456  AGRICULTURE 

favorable  climate;  (5)  its  general  suitability  for  being  made 
into  a  pleasant  and  profitable  homestead  where  an  attractive 
home  can  be  established  for  the  entire  family. 

The  equipment. — With  the  nature  of  the  farm  enter- 
prises in  mind,  the  buildings,  fences,  divisions  of  fields 
and  all  other  improvements  should  be  planned  with  great 
care  to  fit  into  the  general  farm  unit.  The  machinery  should 
be  adapted  to  the  soil  and  the  crops  and  should  receive 
the  best  of  care.     Too  much  machinery  means  too  large 


It  pays  to  build  good  fences. 

an  investment,  and  too  little  means  poor  farming  and  loss 
of  labor. 

Crops  and  animals. — Many  farmers  are  wearing  out 
their  soil  and  obtaining  poor  crops  because  of  lack  of  suf- 
ficiently diversified  farming.  They  do  not  manage  well  if 
they  neglect  to  include  in  their  system  the  legumes,  orchard, 
garden  and  wood-lot  products,  or  other  crops  adapted  to 
their  locality.  Or,  perhaps  certain  crops  are  raised  or  ani- 
mals kept  even  at  an  actual  loss,  thus  neutralizing  the 
profits  on  other  crops  or  animals.  This  all  suggests  the 
need  of  adjustment  and  better  management  on  such  farms. 


FARM  AND   HOME  MANAGEMENT         457 

2.    Administration  of  the  Farm 

The  general  tendency  among  American  farmers  is  to  in- 
troduce the  handhng  of  too  many  enterprises  and  the  culti- 
vation of  too  much  or  too  little  land.  As  a  rule,  our  farms 
are  larger  than  those  of  any  other  country,  and  the  amount 
produced  per  acre  is  less  than  in  most  other  countries. 

Planning  to  get  the  most  out  of  labor  and  soil. — Good 
administration  gets  the  most  out  of  every  day  of  labor  and 
out  of  every  acre  of  land.  Each  piece  of  work  is  carefully 
planned.  Fields  are  tilled  and  crops  harvested  at  the  right 
time.  A  faulty  machine  is  repaired  before  it  breaks  down. 
Unprofitable  cows  and  horses  are  disposed  of  and  not  kept 
at  a  loss.  Fertilizers  are  used  whenever  they  will  pay.  Gar- 
dens and  orchards  are  pruned  and  sprayed  when  necessary. 
No  poor  seed  is  ever  planted.  Herds  and  flocks  are  kept  in 
good  health  by  care  and  sanitary  conditions.  The  home  is 
comfortable,  convenient  and  well  equipped.  Members  of  the 
family  are  given  opportunity  for  general  culture,  recreation 
and  amusement  as  a  means  of  improvement  and  rest  from 
labor. 

Farm  bookkeeping. — Every  enterprising  farmer  should 
keep  a  system  of  records  or  book  accounts.  These  need  not 
be  elaborate,  but  they  must  be  accurate.  Without  this  it  is 
impossible  to  determine  the  sources  of  profits  or  losses,  and 
hence  impossible  to  manage  crops  or  stock  intelligently. 

A  system  of  book  accounts  will  show  whether  the  farm 
is  returning  to  the  owner  fair  wages  and  reasonable  inter- 
est on  the  investment.  A  farmer  who  can  make  average 
day  wages,  and  in  addition  five  per  cent,  interest  on  the 
money  invested,  is  ranked  as  a  good  farmer.  Many  make 
much  more  than  this,  while  others  make  less. 

The  set  of  farm  books  should  show  an  inventory  at  the 
beginning  of  the  year  of  all  stock,  grain,  roughage  and 
the  like  on  hand.     At  the  end  of  the  year  another  inven- 


458 


AGRICULTURE 


Good  machinery  is  a  profitable  investment. 


Well-arranged  cattle  yards. 


FARM   AND   HOME   MANAGEMENT         459 

tory,  with  an  itemized  cash  record,  one  list  of  bills  owed 
others,  and  another  list  of  bills  due  from  others  will  serve 
the  purpose  very  well  on  the  average  farm. 

Marketing  farm  products. — Farmers  find  that  it  pays 
well  to  give  careful  attention  to  the  grading,  crating  and 
standardizing  of  farm  products  for  the  market.  It  is  good 
business  as  well  as  a  matter  of  pride  to  estabHsh  a  uniformity 
of  standard,  using  a  particular  type  of  box,  crate  or  parcel- 
post  pack  marked  with  the  owner's  special  label  and  trade 
mark.  Merchants,  packers  or  customers  will  soon  show 
their  appreciation  of  a  standard  product  by  being  willing 
to  pay  more  for  it  than  for  ungraded  products. 

The  farmer's  need  of  information. — Intelligent  hand- 
ling of  farm  business  requires  that  the  farmer  should  be 
thoroughly  abreast  of  the  times  in  information.  He  will 
need  a  daily  paper  giving  market  quotations  and  crop  re- 
ports. He  should  also  be  familiar  with  the  best  farm  jour- 
nals, a  few  standard  books  on  agriculture,  and  the  bulletins 
and  circulars  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture and  his  state  college  of  agriculture  and  by  means  of 
these  be  able  to  obtain  much  of  daily  value  for  all  farm 
interests  and  activities. 

Ten  important  points  in  farm  administration. — Doctor 
W.  J.  Spillman,  of  the  Office  of  Farm  Management,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  gives  the  following  fac- 
tors as  underlying  successful  farming: 

1.  Low  real  estate  prices  for  the  land  cultivated. 

2.  Production  of  commodities  for  which  the  supply  is  less 

than  the  demand. 

3.  Management  of  the  business  on  as  large  a  scale  as  capi- 

tal and  managerial  ability  will  permit. 

4.  Production  of  commodities  of  the  highest  quality. 

5.  A  reputation  for  reliability. 

6.  Location  for  good  markets,  and  ability  to  buy  and  sell 

profitably. 


460  AGRICULTURE 

7.  Keeping  only  animals  of  highest  productive  capacity, 

8.  Large  yields  with  relatively  little  labor  and  fertilizer. 

9.  Production  at  low  cost. 

10.     Production  of  staple  commodities  for  permanent  profits. 

The  following  ten  commandments  for  southern 
agriculture  were  taught  by  the  late  Doctor  Seaman  A. 
Knapp.  They  will  be  of  value  to  all  who  are  inter- 
ested in  southern  farm  management. 


TEN   COMMANDMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

"At  an  early  period  it  was  found  necessary  to 
evolve  from  the  mass  of  ethical  teaching  a  few  gen- 
eral rules  for  living,  called  The  Ten  Commandments, 
by  which  a  man  could  be  moral  without  going 
through  a  course  of  theology.  Just  so,  in  order  to  in- 
struct the  average  farmer  how  successfully  to  con- 
duct his  farm  operations  so  as  to  secure  a  greater  net 
gain  from  the  farm,  it  is  necessary  first  to  deduce 
from  the  mass  of  agricultural  teachings  a  few  general 
rules  of  procedure.  They  are  called  The  Ten  Com- 
mandments  of  Agriculture,  by  the  practise  of  which  a 
man  may  be  a  good  farmer  in  any  State  without  being 
a  graduate  from  a  college  of  agriculture." 

L  Prepare  a  deep  and  thoroughly  pulverized  seed 
bed,  well  drained;  break  in  the  fall  to  the  depth  of 
eight,  ten  or  twelve  inches,  according  to  the  soil,  with 
implements  that  will  not  bring  too  much  of  the  subsoil 
to  the  surface  (the  foregoing  depths  should  be  reached 
gradually). 

2.  Use  seed  of  the  best  variety,  intelligently  se- 
lected and  carefully  stored. 

3.  In   cultivated   crops,   give   the   rows   and   the 


FARM  AND  HOME  MANAGEMENT         461 

plants  in  the  rows  a  space  suited  to  the  plant,  the 
soil  and  the  climate. 

4.  Use  intensive  tillage  during  the  growing  per- 
iod of  the  crops. 

5.  Secure  a  high  content  of  humus  in  the  soil  by 
the  use  of  legumes,  barnyard  manure,  farm  refuse,  and 
commercial  fertilizers. 

6.  Carry  out  a  systematic  crop  rotation  with  a 
winter  cover  crop  on  southern  farms. 

7.  Accomplish  more  work  in  a  day  by  using  more 
horse  power  and  better  implements. 

8.  Increase  the  farm  stock  to  the  extent  of  utilis- 
ing all  the  waste  products  and  idle  lands  of  the  farm. 

9.  Produce  all  the  food  required  for  the  men  and 
animals  on  the  farm. 

10.  Keep  an  account  of  each  farm  product,  in 
order  to  know  from  which  the  gain  or  loss  arises. 


Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Name  all  the  different  enterprises  on  your  home 
farm. 

2.  What  is  meant  by  seasonal  distribution  of  labor? 
Name  some  of  the  things  that  a  farmer  and  his  men  can 
do  on  rainy  days  in  the  summer  and  on  stormy  days  in  the 
winter. 

3.  Make  an  inventory  of  your  farm  supplies  at  the 
present  time,  such  as  stock,  machinery,  grain,  hay,  etc. 
Make  a  list  of  purchases  in  these  Hues  during  the  last  year. 
Make  a  list  of  the  sales.  Talk  with  your  father  about  keep- 
ing under  his  direction  a  set  of  farm  records  for  a  year. 

4.  Choose  some  farm  in  the  neighborhood  and,  under 
the  teacher's  direction,  make  a  plan  for  reorganizing  its 
management  as  to  cropping,  stock,  machinery,  buildings, 
drainage,  laying  off  of  fields,  fencing,  etc.,  with  a  view  to 
better  results. 


462  AGRICULTURE 


3.     The  Farm  Home 


Successful  farming  must  make  the  home  the  center  of 
all  interest  and  effort.  The  final  purpose  of  increasing  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  raising  good  crops,  and  producing  fine 
herds  and  flocks  is  to  make  a  better  home  thereby.  Little 
is  gained  by  making  more  money,  buying  more  land  and 
raising  more  stock  if  the  home  is  not  made  to  share  in  the 
prosperity. 

The  farmhouse. — The  farmhouse  should  be  comfort- 
able and  attractive.  There  is  little  excuse  in  this  day  for 
building  houses  that  are  ugly  and  repellent ;  for  even  mod- 
erate priced  buildings  can  be  planned  to  look  well  and  at 
the  same  time  be  convenient  and  homelike.  The  home, 
whether  large  or  small,  should  be  one  in  which  every  mem- 
ber takes  pride,  where  happiness  and  contentment  may 
reign,  and  where  the  spirit  of  home  may  be  fully  realized. 

Plan  and  equipment. — The  farmhouse  should  be 
planned  for  convenience.  For  there  is  much  hard  work  to 
be  done  by  the  housewife,  and  every  care  should  be  taken 
to  save  her  time  and  strength.  A  well  organized  kitchen, 
with  running  water,  a  good  sink  with  drainage,  a  kitchen 
cabinet,  plenty  of  table  space,  cupboards,  oil  or  gas  heat- 
er for  summer  use,  and  a  steam  pressure  or  fireless  cook- 
er, is  one  of  the  first  requirements  in  planning  a  house. 

Practical  conveniences. — The  farm  home  should  have 
a  well  lighted  basement  with  cement  floor,  a  fully  equipped 
laundry  with  water-pipes  and  stationary  tubs  connected 
with  a  drain,  to  save  the  lifting  and  carrying  of  water. 
Suitable  vegetable  bins  should  be  provided  and  so  arranged 
that  they  may  be  cooled  from  the  outside.  A  bathroom  is  a 
practical  necessity  on  the  farm  as  well  as  city  home  and  can 
be  supplied  with  water  from  an  elevated  windmill  or  cistern 
tank.  A  toilet  and  lavatory  should  also  be  a  part  of  this 
equipment.     The   telephone  now  belongs   to   the   farm   as 


FARM  AND  HOME  MANAGEMENT 


463 


much  as  to  the  town,  and  electric  lighting  and  power,  even, 
are  now  being  made  available  to  many  farms  through  the 
small  independent  plants  or  the  extension  of  trolley  lines. 


t^^^^^^m  ^^m^ff" 

:■■)--      .  ' 

ill 

^^^^^^^^Bl 

^^^^^I^^^^^^B             ^^^1 

A  hand  separator.  | 

All  these  things  can  be  had  without  great  cost.     They  re- 
quire chiefly  thrift,  a  spirit  of  enterprise  and  a  little  careful 
planning. 
31 


464 


AGRICULTURE 


Labor-saving  devices. — The  wise  farmer  buys  good 
machinery  to  till  his  land  and  harvest  his  crops.  His  wife 
should  also  have  the  advantage  of  modern  labor-saving  de- 
vices in  her  work.  The  best  of  cooking  utensils,  fruit  and 
vegetable  canning  outfits,  electric  or  automatically  heated 
flat  irons,  cleaning  devices,  hardwood  floors,  sanitary  floor 
coverings,  rugs  and  other  similar  helps  to  good  housekeep- 


A  fine  homestead,  but  lacking  in  trees. 

ing  should  not  be  wanting.  For  such  equipment  now  be- 
longs in  every  modern  home  and  will  save  much  time  and 
drudgery. 

Recreation  and  culture. — Most  farm  homes  can  afford 
a  supply  of  good  books  and  magazines.  These  lead  to  effi- 
ciency, education  and  enjoyment.  Good  pictures  and  har- 
mony in  furnishings  of  rooms  also  add  much  to  the  home 
spirit.  Musical  instruments  are  within  the  reach  of  most  of 
our  farm  homes,  and  prove  one  of  the  best  investments. 
Many  interesting  games  can  also  be  secured  at  little  cost. 


FARM  AND  HOME  MANAGEMENT         465 

The  back  yard. — The  back  yard  should  be  quite  as 
clean  and  attractive  as  the  front  yard.  No  refuse  or  litter, 
unsanitary  chicken  coops,  garbage  heaps  or  mud-holes 
should  be  tolerated.  Closed  garbage  cans  should  be  used, 
and  everything  done  away  with  that  will  attract  flies  or  mos- 
quitoes, or  be  the  breeding  place  for  disease  germs. 

Drainage. — No  farm  house  is  complete  without  a 
drain  leading  out  through  the  basement  and  on  to  a  cess- 
pool some  distance  from  the  house.  Cesspools  can  be  con- 
structed at  almost  no  expense  except  for  the  labor,  and  so 
made  as  not  to  endanger  wells  in  the  vicinity. 

4.     Other  Farm  Buildings 

Much  time  and  labor  can  be  saved  by  a  proper  arrange- 
ment and  placing  of  farm  buildings.  While  barns  should 
not  be  located  too  near  the  house,  neither  should  they  be 
so  far  away  as  to  cause  unnecessary  steps  in  going  back  and 
forth.  In  the  North,  where  winters  are  long  and  severe, 
arrangements  may  be  made  to  connect  the  house  with  the 
barn  in  some  way. 

Making  a  plan. — Before  barns,  poultry  houses,  hog- 
houses  or  corn  cribs  are  erected  a  plan  for  the  whole  system 
of  buildings  likely  to  be  needed  should  be  made.  The  dis- 
tance for  carrying  feed,  water  and  milk  should  be  care- 
fully considered,  and  all  other  conditions  taken  into  account 
in  placing  the  structures.  The  buildings  themselves  should 
be  planned  with  the  greatest  convenience  and  economy  of 
labor,  time  and  energy. 

Barnyards. — The  appearance  of  a  barnyard  is  one  of 
the  best  tests  of  a  good  farmer.  The  yard  should,  first  of 
all,  be  clean  and  free  from  filth.  All  low  places  that  col- 
lect pools  of  water  should  be  filled.  Manure  should  be 
kept  in  the  pit  or  cleaned  up  and  spread  on  the  fields.     No 


466 


AGRICULTURE 


old  machinery,  piles  of  boards,  and  scraps  of  rubbish  should 
litter  the  place.  The  entire  set  of  farm  buildings,  yards  and 
fences  should  show  taste  and  good  management  and  be 
pleasing  to  the  eye.  To  accomplish  this  does  not  add  ma- 
terially to  the  expense  of  operating  the  farm;  in  the  long 
run  it  does  not  even  require  more  time  than  to  allow  the 


Well-kept  barns. 

homestead  to  run  at  loose  ends.  A  well  kept  homestead  is 
largely  a  matter  of  thoughtful  planning,  and  a  desire  to 
make  the  farm  home  attractive  as  well  as  profitable. 


Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Make  a  study  of  the  plans  of  several  farm  homes, 
and  discuss  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each  plan, 
finally  selecting  your  favorite  plan. 

2.  Take  a  look  at  your  home  door  yard,  and  decide 
whether  any  improvement  is  necessary.  Do  the  same  for 
your  barnyards.     Is  there  old  machinery  or  rubbish  about 


FARM  AND  HOME   MANAGEMENT         467 

that  needs  cleaning  up  ?    Are  there  any  fences  or  gates  that 
need  repairing? 

3.  Make  a  plan  of  your  farm  homestead,  locating  all 
of  the  buildings.  Now  suggest  any  rearrangement  that 
would  make  the  homestead  more  convenient  or  attractive. 

4.  Make  a  plan  showing  how  water  could  be  brought 
by  underground  pipes  from  an  elevated  tank  from  your 
windmill  or  silo,  (1)  to  the  kitchen  of  your  house,  and  (2) 
to  your  barns.  Also  make  a  drawing  of  a  drain  leading  from 
your  basement  to  a  cesspool ;  show  a  plan  also  of  the  cess- 
pool.   What  is  a  septic  tank? 

5.  Consider  carefully  what  practical  project  you  could 
carry  out  for  the  improvement  either  of  the  appearance  or 
the  convenience  of  your  farm  homestead,  and  talk  with 
your  father  about  undertaking  it.  Show  a  detailed  esti- 
mate of  any  expense  involved,  including  labor  and  material. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
THE  HOME  GROUNDS  AND  WOOD  LOT 

NO  home  place  is  complete  without  trees,  plants  and 
shrubs.  Even  with  costly  and  pretentious  buildings  a 
homestead  may  look  barren  and  inhospitable  from  lack  of 
the  decorative  and  comfortable  effect  of  shade  trees,  groves, 
climbing  vines  and  blossoming  plants.  One  should  learn 
not  only  to  make  his  farm  pay  hut  to  make  it  interesting 
and  attractive  to  members  of  the  family  and  neighbors. 

1.     Beautifying  the  Home  Grounds 

The  house  lot  and  lawn  of  the  farm  home  can  be  made 
especially  beautiful  and  interesting.  For  there  is  more  room 
on  the  farm  than  in  the  town  or  city,  and  the  trees  and 
plants  needed  for  its  decoration  will  cost  but  little  except  a 
reasonable  amount  of  care.  Well  kept  grounds  add  a  great 
deal  to  the  market  value  of  a  farm,  and  contribute  even 
more  to  the  beauty  and  comfort  of  the  home. 

Plan  for  setting. — To  produce  the  best  results,  the 
setting  of  trees  and  shrubbery  should  follow  some  complete 
and  well  devised  plan.  The  effect  of  the  most  beautiful 
vegetation  may  be  lost  by  careless  or  improper  placing. 
When  used  for  decoration  or  shade,  trees  should  usually 
not  be  set  in  rows,  unless  along  a  driveway  or  boundary 
line ;  nor  should  they  be  so  blocked  together  that  they  shut 
off  the  view  of  the  house.  They  may  stand  as  single  iso- 
lated specimens,  or  in  irregular  groups.     Trees  often  are 

468 


THE  HOME  GROUNDS  AND  WOOD  LOT    469 

placed  too  near  the  house,  thus  excluding  the  sun  and  caus- 
ing dampness. 

Shrubs,  likewise,  appear  to  best  advantage  when  set 
in  clumps,  or  irregularly  to  make  a  border  for  the  lawn. 
Climbing  vines  can  be  used  to  screen  porches,  cover  garden 
fences,  hide  unsightly  sheds  and  outbuildings,  or  clamber 
over  stumps,  rocks  or  barren  banks. 

Selecting  varieties. — One  can  select  from  an  almost 


The  shrubs  and  trees  add  much  to  this  farm  home. 


endless  variety  of  trees,  shrubs  and  vines.  Each  variety 
has  its  own  peculiar  individuality,  which  should  be  studied 
and  known  before  the  selection  is  made.  A  plant,  once 
given  a  place  on  the  grounds,  becomes  a  permanent  part 
of  the  home-place,  and  should  therefore  be  chosen  with  as 
much  care  as  are  our  friends. 

Shade  trees  should  be  hardy,  well-shaped,  broad  leafed, 
grow  to  a  good  size,  and  attract  no  troublesome  insects. 
Elms,   maples,   oaks,   ash,  basswood,   catalpa,   locusts,   nut 


470 


AGRICULTURE 


and  fruit  trees,  and,  in  the  South,  magnolias,  orange,  pecan, 
sycamore,  the  redbud  and  Hve  oak,  are  among  the  favorites. 

Shrubs  are  to  be  selected  both  for  their  foliage  and 
flowers.  With  care,  provision  can  be  made  for  the  appear- 
ance of  blossoms  during  each  month  of  the  summer,  and 
for  an  attractive  variety  of  foliage  throughout  the  season. 

Flowering  plants. — The  plan  for  the  home  grounds 


i,^^ 

--«, 

S[ 

-.     yBLy----^        "■  V^ 

!^^^^^^^^^^^^HflBH||H|^^^^H|^^B^^^^''|^^^lS|^zj^2^^|Hil 

Bjjjiggt;! 

- 

A  fine  homesteau  :i  ui 
good  set  of  buildings. 


iiijuL,  ailo^^  ing  wood  lot,  orchard  and  a 


should  include  a  few  beds  of  flowering  plants.  Most  of 
these  may  be  perennials,  which  will  require  but  little  care 
after  the  bed  has  become  well  established.  With  the  addi- 
tion of  a  few  varieties  of  hardy  bulbs  for  annual  planting, 
beautiful  effects  can  be  produced  with  practically  no  cost 
and  with  the  expenditure  of  very  little  time. 

The  lawn. — Nothing  adds  more  to  the  appearance  of 
a  homestead  than  a  well  kept  lawn.  The  lawn  should  first 
of  all  be  well  smoothed,  the  low  places  being  filled  and  all 


THE  HOME  GROUNDS  AND  WOOD  LOT    471 

obstructions  removed.  The  soil  should  be  rich  and  well 
drained.  For  the  greater  part  of  the  United  States,  a  mix- 
ture of  blue-grass  and  red-top,  with  perhaps  a  small  amount 
of  white  clover,  makes  a  good  lawn  covering. 

The  lawn  must  be  close-mown  if  it  is  to  produce  a  pleas- 
ing effect.  If  allowed  to  grow  up,  the  grass  becomes  tufted 
and  coarse,  besides  looking  ragged  and  unkempt.  Farm 
stock  should  not  be  pastured  on  the  lawn.  Their  trampling 
will  produce  unevenness  that  interferes  with  the  lawn- 
mower,  and  plants,  shrubbery  and  young  trees  are  sure  to 
suffer  from  being  browsed. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Draw  a  plan  of  your  home  grounds,  locating  all 
the  trees,  vines  and  shrubs,  and  giving  the  names  of  va- 
rieties. 

2.  In  your  drawing  also  show  the  position,  size  and 
shape  of  all  the  flower  beds,  specifying  the  varieties  of 
plants,  and  whether  annuals  or  perennials. 

3.  Make  a  complete  plan  for  the  decoration  of  your 
home  grounds,  taking  into  account  the  trees,  shrubs,  and 
plants  already  set  out.  What  varieties  should  be  added? 
Are  any  trees  or  shrubs  in  such  positions  that  they  should 
be  removed? 

4.  Make  a  plan  for  decorating  the  school  grounds,  speci- 
fying by  variety  each  tree  and  shrub,  and  showing  its  loca- 
tion. 

2.     The  Farm  Wood  Lot 

Every  farm  place  should  have  its  own  wood  lot.  It 
costs  little  to  start,  requires  but  little  care  after  the  first 
year  or  two,  and  yields  large  returns. 

Uses  of  the  wood  lot. — Poles,  timbers  and  posts  are 
constantly  needed  on  every  farm.  When  there  is  no  wood 
lot  to  supply  them,  they  must  either  be  bought,  or  the  farm 
suffer  for  their  lack.  Lumber,  posts  and  timbers  of 
every  sort  are  becoming  more  expensive  from  year  to  year 


472 


AGRICULTURE 


as  our  forests  are  being  depleted.  Fire-wood  raised  on  the 
farm  costs  very  much  less  than  if  bought  in  the  market, 
and  so  scarce  is  it  becoming  in  many  regions  that  it  can  not 
be  had  at  all  unless  produced  at  home. 

The  wood  lot  can  often  be  so  placed  as  to  serve  for  a 


A  ^uwd  luL  (ti  liaiiipshire  Downs  and  n  iine  wuud  iuL. 


windbreak  for  the  farm  buildings,  and  at  the  same  time 
add  to  the  beauty  and  value  of  the  homestead.  When  the 
trees  are  grown  they  afford  welcome  shade  for  animals, 
contributing  both  to  their  comfort  and  profit. 

Birds  are  attracted  to  the  wood  lot,  and  from  this  shel- 


THE  HOME  GROUNDS  AND  WOOD  LOT    473 

ter  make  sallies  out  upon  the  harmful  insects  that  prey  on 
crops  or  gardens.  From  the  friendly  tree-tops  they  also 
pour  out  their  tribute  of  song. 

The  location  and  size  of  the  wood  lot. — It  may  not 
always  be  desirable  to  plant  a  large  wood  lot  near  the  build- 
ings. When  such  is  the  case,  low  wet  places,  steep  hillsides, 
or  small  irregular  pieces  of  ground  not  suitable  for  culti- 
vation can  often  be  utilized. 

From  one-half  an  acre  to  several  acres  of  ground  can 


Using  the  wood  lot  for  social  center  work,  school  picnics  and 
club  festivals,  near  Dows,  Iowa. 


profitably  be  set  to  trees  on  a  fair-sized  farm.  While  the 
returns  are  not  immediate  as  with  other  crops,  yet  the  profit 
is  reasonably  sure  in  the  end.  Many  far-sighted  farmers 
are  now  providing  for  the  fence  posts  and  timbers  they 
will  need  ten  or  twenty  years  hence  by  setting  out  and 
caring  for  trees  in  a  wood  lot.  It  is  estimated  that  Minne- 
sota farmers  set  out  a  million  trees  in  one  year  and  in 
many  other  regions  the  movement  is  quite  as  marked. 

Varieties  of  trees  for  the  wood  lot. — It  is  impossible 


474  AGRICULTURE 

to  recommend  definite  varieties  of  trees  for  the  wood  lot, 
since  this  depends  on  the  region  and  the  use  to  be  made  of 
the  timber.  Some  prefer  to  plant  the  rapid-growing  soft 
wood  trees,  while  others  are  willing  to  wait  longer  for  the 
harder  woods  to  grow.  An  excellent  plan  is  to  plant  a 
number  of  varieties.  Not  only  will  this  allow  a  mixture  of 
the  slow  and  the  fast  growing  trees,  but  provide  a  variety 
of  timber  suitable  for  different  purposes  of  utility  and  com- 
fort for  the  farm. 

From  the  eastern  to  the  middle  western  states  the  fa- 
vorite trees  seem  to  be  the  different  varieties  of  maple, 
elm,  oak,  locust,  ash,  fir,  basswood,  hickory,  walnut,  box- 
elder,  Cottonwood,  yellow  poplar,  catalpa,  chestnut,  syca- 
more, etc. 

In  the  drier  regions  such  as  western  Kansas  and  Ne- 
braska, Oklahoma,  Texas  and  Colorado,  it  is  difficult  to  start 
successfully  some  of  these  varieties.  Among  the  best 
drought  resisting  trees  are  the  black  locust,  green  ash,  Osage 
orange  and  Russian  mulberry.  In  the  southern  and  far 
western  states  practically  all  varieties  suitable  to  the  North 
and  East  can  be  grown  and  many  others  besides. 

Starting  the  wood  lot. — ^The  wood  lot  may  be  started, 
in  the  case  of  most  trees,  either  by  planting  the  seed,  or 
by  setting  out  young  trees.  A  common  method  of  starting 
a  grove  of  hardy  catalpa,  for  example,  is  to  prepare  the 
seed  bed  as  if  for  corn.  Catalpa  seed  is  then  planted,  and 
the  field  cultivated  for  several  years.  The  young  trees  are 
sometimes  cut  back  to  the  ground  after  two  years  of  growth 
for  the  purpose  of  producing  straighter  and  more  sturdy 
trees.  The  growth  of  the  tree  is  not  retarded  by  this 
process. 

A  seed  bed  for  trees  can  easily  be  started,  and  the  trees 
transplanted  to  the  desired  positions  when  the  seedlings  are 
from  one  to  three  years  old.  A  small  seed  bed  will  supply 
trees  for  a  large  wood  lot. 


THE  HOME  GROUNDS  AND  WOOD  LOT    475 

3.     Tree  Enemies 

While  most  of  the  common  trees  are  not  subject  to  a 
large  number  of  enemies,  yet  they  must  have  reasonable 
care  and  protection  if  they  are  to  thrive. 

Farmi  animals. — One  of  the  most  common  mistakes 
in  starting  young  trees  is  to  allow  them  to  be  exposed  to 
stock.  Cattle,  sheep  or  hogs  are  sure  to  injure  the  trees 
by  grazing  upon  the  leaves  and  branches,  by  trampling 
them,  or  by  rubbing  against  them.  The  wood  lot  should 
be  fenced,  and  all  stock  excluded  until  the  trees  are  well 
grown.    Horses  should  never  be  tied  to  trees. 

Weeds  and  sod. — Young  trees  are  as  easily  injured  as 
any  other  plant  by  weeds  or  grass.  Many  people  seem  to 
think  that  because  large  trees  can  take  care  of  themselves 
against  these  enemies  young  trees  can  do  the  same.  But 
trees  once  checked  in  their  growth  by  the  choking  of  weeds 
or  sod  will  never  fully  recover. 

Insect  and  fungous  enemies. — Shade  and  timber  trees 
are,  on  the  whole,  less  subject  to  insect  and  fungous  attacks 
than  fruit  trees.  Yet  occasionally  even  the  most  hardy  trees 
succumb  to  such  enemies.  The  elm,  one  of  the  healthiest 
of  our  trees,  has  recently  suffered  greatly  in  certain  regions. 
The  chestnut  has  also  been  seriously  afflicted  with  a  bark 
disease.  Whole  forests  of  fir  have  died  in  southern  locali- 
ties. Even  the  catalpa  is  subject  to  a  fungous  trouble  at 
certain  stages  of  its  growth.  Whenever  a  considerable 
number  of  trees  in  a  locality  show  signs  of  disease,  an 
expert  should  be  consulted  and  his  directions  followed. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Join  with  the  teacher  and  class  in  making  a  collec- 
tion of  all  the  woods  in  your  locality.  Use  seasoned  woods 
for  specimens  when  possible,  selecting  sticks  two  or  three 
inches   in   diameter,   and   sawing   them   about   four   inches 


476 


AGRICULTURE 


long.  Split  each  specimen,  then  smooth  and  sandpaper  the 
flat  side  and  ends  and  spread  a  coat  of  shellac  over  the  fin- 
ished parts.  Learn  to  identify  each  specimen  both  by  the 
bark  and  by  the  texture  and  grain. 


Power  spraying  of  trees. 


2.  Gather  and  preserve  in  wide-mouthed  bottles  samples 
of  the  seeds  of  all  the  trees  in  your  vicinity.  Learn  to 
identify  these  seeds.    Plant  some  of  each,  and  learn  to  iden- 


THE  HOME  GROUNDS  AND  WOOD  LOT    477 

tify  the  young  plant  of  each  variety.  Consider  the  pos- 
sibiHty  of  starting  a  tree  nursery  or  seed  bed  on  the  school 
ground,  where  the  seeds  of  the  different  trees  can  be  planted 
and  seedlings  raised  for  study  and  replanting,  either  on  the 
school  grounds  or  at  the  homes. 

3.  How  can  you  tell  the  age  of*  a  tree  after  it  is  cut 
down?  Find  some  freshly  cut  tree  and  discover  its  age. 
Can  you  tell  from  the  annual  rings  any  years  when  the 
tree  did  not  make  a  good  growth? 

4.  Make  a  collection  of  the  leaves  of  all  the  different 
trees  available,  and  learn  to  identify  them. 

5.  What  is  the  difference  between  plain-sawn  and  quar- 
ter-sawn lumber  ?  Look  at  different  pieces  of  oak  furniture, 
and  decide  whether  the  lumber  was  plain  or  quarter-sawn. 
Why  does  some  hard  pine  flooring  have  a  tendency  to  splin- 
ter up,  while  others  do  not? 

6.  Locate  on  the  map  of  the  United  States  the  forest 
reserves  of  our  country ;  the  lumber  producing  sections. 

7.  Estimate  the  cost  of  producing  a  ten-acre  wood  lot 
of  some  prevailing  trees  of  your  section. 

8.  Write  down  the  names  of  all  the  different  trees 
you  can  think  of  common  to  your  state,  in  the  order  of 
their  importance  to  the  farm. 

4.     Demonstrations  on  Home  Grounds  and  Wood  Lot 

L  Demonstrate  how  properly  to  remove  and  trans- 
plant a  shrub  or  bush. 

2.  Demonstrate  how  to  make  a  tree  graft ;  how  to  make 
a  bud  graft. 

3.  Demonstrate  how  to  prune  and  thin  the  different 
kinds  of  trees. 

4.  Show  the  proper  method  of  spraying  for  different 
insects,  diseases  and  blights. 

5.  Show  how  to  treat  the  tree-trunk  to  prevent  insects 
from  passing  from  the  ground  into  the  tree. 

6.  Demonstrate  different  methods  of  tree  surgery,  such 
as  repairing  injured  limbs  and  diseased  and  decayed  spots. 


478  AGRICULTURE  - 

How  does  this  compare  with  dental  work,  medical  and  sur- 
gical treatment  of  human  beings? 

7.  Demonstrate  how  to  lay  off  a  lawn  with  a  view  to 
artistic  arrangements  for  the  lawn  itself  and  as  related  to 
the  home,  buildings,  pathway  and  roadway. 

8.  Demonstrate  how  to  sharpen  and  set  a  fence  post. 

9.  Show  how  to  set  a  comer  post  and  brace  it. 

10.  Demonstrate  how  to  make  bird  houses,  bird  baths, 
watering  troughs,  feeding  platforms,  etc.,  on  the  lawn  or  in 
the  shrubbery,  trees,  and  out  in  the  wood  lot,  to  encourage 
and  help  the  conservation  of  the  farmers'  bird  friends. 

5.    Play  Contests  for  Home  Grounds  and  Wood  Lot 

There  can  be  no  better  way  to  arouse  interest  in  the  im- 
proving of  home  grounds  and  the  planting  and  care  of  wood 
lots  than  to  inaugurate  a  large  number  of  play  contests, 
related  to  this  work.  Practically  all  of  the  demonstrations 
outlined  above  can  be  so  organized  as  to  become  very  inter- 
esting play  contests.     Illustrations: 

1.  Tree  naming  contest. 

2.  Spelling  contest  from  a  list  of  names  of  trees,  shrubs, 
plants  and  flowers. 

3.  Drawing  contest,  showing  the  plan  and  arrangement 
of  lawns,  wood  lots  and  farm  home  grounds. 

4.  Wood  collection  and  exhibit  contest. 

5.  Manual-training  contests,  in  which  the  pupils  are 
to  contest  in  making  articles  from  wood,  leaves,  bark,  buds 
and  flowers. 

6.  Tree  judging  contest. 

7.  Lawn  management  contest,  the  same  to  cover  a  sea- 
son and  to  involve  not  only  the  mowing  of  the  lawn  but  its 
proper  up-keep,  repair  and  improvement. 

8.  Essay  writing  contest  on  the  home  grounds  and 
wood  lot. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 
THE   COUNTY   AGRICULTURAL  AGENT 

SEVERAL  new  agencies  have  recently  entered  the  field 
of  agricultural  extension  education  and  rural  develop- 
ment :  some  of  these  are  ( 1 )  the  county  agricultural  agent, 
and  (2)  the  county  farm  bureau.  The  latter  consists  of  an 
organization  of  the  business  men  and  farmers  of  a  county 
for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  a  kind  of  clearing  house  for 
agricultural  information  and  an  organization  through  which 
a  county  agent  may  work.  The  county  agent  is  an  agri- 
cultural leader  whose  business  is  to  organize,  lead,  instruct 
and  give  agricultural  direction  and  advice  to  the  farmers 
or  to  pupils  and  teachers  of  agriculture  in  the  schools  of 
the  colmty. 

1.     The  Work  of  the  County  Agent 

First  work  in  the  South. — The  advent  of  the  Mexican 
boll  weevil  in  the  cotton  fields  of  Texas  was  responsible 
for  the  beginning  of  this  work.  So  great  were  its  ravages 
that  in  1905  and  1906  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  employed  Doctor  Seaman  A.  Knapp  to  investi- 
gate what  could  be  done  to  exterminate  the  boll  weevil  and 
to  demonstrate  to  the  southern  farmer  that  cotton  could  be 
grown  in  spite  of  the  pest. 

Doctor  Knapp  soon  discovered  that  printed  circulars 
of  instruction,  public  lectures  and  other  former  means  of 
agricultural  instruction  would  not  accomplish  what  was 
needed  to  be  done.  So  he  determined  upon  a  plan  of  field 
and  farm  demonstration  work  for  the  purpose  of  showing 
32  479 


480  AGRICULTURE 

upon  the  man's  own  farm  not  only  how  to  exterminate  the 
boll  weevil,  but  how  to  grow  an  earlier  variety  of  cotton  and, 
if  possible,  a  weevil-resistant  strain.  From  this  beginning 
there  has  been  a  very  rapid  growth  of  this  type  of  exten- 
sion work,  until  at  the  present  time  county  agricultural 
agents  are  employed  in  every  state  in  the  Union. 

The  county  workers. — Men  employed  as  county  agri- 
cultural agents  are  required  to  be  possessed  of  scientific 
information  and  successful  experience  on  the  problems  of 
agriculture.  They  are  expected  also  to  have  had  practical 
experience  in  the  general  management  of  a  farm.  Plans 
have  already  been  made  by  which  the  county  agent  is 
assisted  by  a  woman  agent  who  must  be  thoroughly  trained 
and  fitted  to  advise  and  direct  the  girls  and  women  in  all 
matters  relating  to  the  making  of  better  homes.  Several  hun- 
dred women  agents  are  now  at  work  in  as  many  counties. 

Organization  of  the  county  work. — The  county  agents 
live  in  the  county  and  are  supplied  with  an  office  where 
they  may  be  consulted.  They  usually  are  furnished  with 
some  means  of  transportation  so  that  they  may  travel  about 
the  county,  from  farm  to  farm  and  from  home  to  home. 
In  this  way  the  county  agents  carry  to  the  very  door  of  the 
farm  home  and  the  public  school  the  services  of  specialists. 
They  are  able  to  bring  to  those  who  can  not  go  to  college 
the  help,  advice  and  leadership  of  the  best  scientific  inves- 
tigators, and  really  make  the  farms  a  part  of  the  campus, 
class  rooms  and  laboratories  of  the  agricultural  college  and 
demonstration  centers  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

Character  of  help  rendered. — The  work  of  the  county 
agents  is  calculated  to  increase  the  profits  of  farming,  and 
the  comforts  and  efficiency  of  the  farm  home ;  to  aid  in  con- 
serving and  building  up  the  soil ;  and  to  encourage  the  ad- 
vancement  of   community   education   and    social   interests. 


THE  COUNTY  AGRICULTURAL  AGENT     481 

Like  the  physician  or  surgeon,  the  county  agents  are  to  be 
called  when  advice,  treatment  or  preventive  measures  are 
needed.  They  plan  for  a  system  of  demonstrations  to  show 
the  best  methods  of  managing  the  soil,  preparing  the  seed 
bed,  selecting  and  caring  for  seed,  management  and  care 
of  farm  animals,  organization  and   care   of  gardens   and 


The  county  agricultural  agent  is  discussing  grain  problems  with 
the  farmers  at  thrashing  time. 


orchards,  -and  the  handling  and  conservation  of  farm  build- 
ings and  machinery. 

If  a  herd  is  stricken  with  tuberculosis,  the  hogs  with 
cholera,  the  cotton-field  with  the  boll  weevil,  or  the  corn- 
field with  cutworms,  the  county  agent  should  be  notified 
and  his  help  secured.  If  he  is  not  able  directly  to  give 
information  and  aid  he  will  know  where  to  secure  assist- 
ance on  short  notice.  In  like  manner  the  county  agent 
will  be  of  special  assistance  in  planning  the  proper  man- 


482  AGRICULTURE 

agement  of  soils  and  crops  when  the  seasons  are  too 
dry  or  too  wet;  in  the  best  organization  of  farm  enter- 
prises ;  and  in  the  management  of  all  of  the  efficiency  fac- 
tors important  to  the  success  of  American  agriculture. 

2.     Financial  Support 

The  county  agent  work  was  first  supported  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  by  the  use  of 
funds  directly  appropriated  by  Congress  to  the  Depart- 
ment. This  was  liberally  supplemented  by  a  fund  from  the 
General  Education  Board,  having  in  trust  a  large  fund 
donated  by  John  D.  Rockefeller.  The  work  under  Doctor 
Knapp's  direction  made  definite  progress  toward  the  ex- 
termination of  the  boll  weevil  and  the  development  of  re- 
sistant types  of  cotton.  The  best  part  of  his  work  was  the 
fact  that  through  the  county  agent  movement  he  succeeded 
in  getting  the  southern  farmers  to  appreciate  that  they 
needed  to  grow  their  own  pork,  beef,  poultry  and  dairy 
products  and  that  crop  rotation  was  quite  as  possible  in  the 
South  as  in  the  central  and  northern  states.  He  also  dem- 
onstrated  through  these  men  that  growing  cotton  as  a  single 
crop  enterprise  from  year  to  year  meant  certain  destruction 
agriculturally  to  the  South. 

This  work  called  for  a  more  liberal  appropriation  of 
funds  from  year  to  year  from  four  different  sources :  ( 1 ) 
The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture;  (2)  the 
state  legislatures;  (3)  the  General  Education  Board;  (4) 
the  local  or  county  government. 

The  United  States  Congress  in  the  year  1912  appro- 
priated an  additional  amount  of  money  to  be  expended  for 
the  development  of  farm  demonstration  and  county  agent 
work  in  the  northern,  central  and  western  states  for  the 
first  time.  This  fund  was  supplemented  by  one  hundred 
thousand  dollars  donated  by  a  Chicago  business  man.     In 


THE  COUNTY  AGRICULTURAL  AGENT     483 

1914  the  Smith-Lever  Bill  was  enacted  into  law  and  this 
made  federal  aid  available  for  every  state  in  the  Union,  be- 
ginning July  1,  1914.  The  entire  amount  appropriated  for 
the  first  year  was  four  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  dol- 
lars, to  be  divided  equally  among  the  forty-eight  states. 
The  appropriation  is  gradually  to  increase  until  the  federal 
government  is  contributing  some  four  and  one-half  million 
dollars  annually  for  the  encouragement  of  demonstration 
extension  work  in  agriculture. 

The  Smith-Lever  Law  contemplates  that  the  greater  part 
of  this  immense  fund  shall  be  spent  in  supporting  county 
agricultural  agents,  state  and  district  leaders  of  boys'  and 
girls'  club  work,  demonstration  work  in  home  economics, 
and  specialists  who  will  help  in  shaping  and  building  up 
agricultural  interests  throughout  the  nation.  The  agricul- 
tural colleges  through  their  extension  divisions  and  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  through  the 
States'  Relations  Service  are  to  cooperate  in  carrying  out 
fully  the  provisions  of  the  act. 

Steps  to  be  taken  in  securing  a  county  agent. — The 
matter  of  securing  an  agent  for  a  county  should  first  be 
taken  up  with  the  state  leaders,  whose  headquarters  are 
with  the  agricultural  college  of  each  state.  He  is  in  a  po- 
sition to  assist  in  planning  and  conducting  the  campaign  for 
an  agent  and  can  give  information  in  regard  to  available 
sources  of  county,  state  and  federal  funds,  and  the  amount 
of  funds  necessary  properly  to  finance  the  movement.  When 
the  county  is  ready  for  the  appointment  of  an  agent,  the 
state  leader  may  be  able  to  recommend  a  man  qualified  for 
the  work. 

3.     The  County  Agent  and  the  School 

The  county  agents  seek  not  only  to  help  the  farmers 
in  their  immediate  problems,  but  also  to  advance  agricul- 
tural education  in  every  possible  way. 


484 


AGRICULTURE 


Help  for  the  school. — Every  agent  desires  to  assist 
the  work  in  agriculture  in  the  schools  of  his  county.  In 
many  instances  the  county  agents  and  the  county  superin- 
tendents plan  and  carry  on  their  work  together.  Teachers 
and  pupils  can  always  feel  free  to  call  on  the  agent  for 
help  or  advice  in  connection  with  any  agricultural  club 
or  individual  project. 


Apple  Club    .juyc,   pruning   orcliurd   unc'^r 
agent,  Cortland  County,  New  York. 


iijction  of  county 


When  it  is  impossible  to  reach  the  agent  for  a  personal 
interview,  the  telephone  or  mail  can  be  employed.  Pupils 
and  teachers  should  become  acquainted  with  the  agent  per- 
sonally, attend  the  demonstrations  and  public  meetings,  and 
study  the  experiments  and  investigations  he  makes.  Think 
over  carefully  the  work  of  the  farm  and  if  either  you  or 
your  parents  have  problems  that  are  annoying — troubles  of 
any  kind  with  soil,  crops,  or  stock — seek  the  advice  and 
help  of  the  agent  at  once. 


THE  COUNTY  AGRICULTURAL  AGENT      485 

Advice  on  club  projects. — Club  projects  should  be 
selected  with  great  care.  The  county  agent  should  be  con- 
sulted as  to  the  best  project  for  the  boys  to  undertake,  and 
the  woman  county  agent  should  be  consulted  as  to  the  best 
one  for  the  interest  of  the  girls  and  the  home.  All  of  the 
club  projects  outlined  in  this  book  will  be  of  especial  interest 
to  the  county  agricultural  agents  and  they  will  be  glad  to 
give  encouragement  and  assistance  to  the  work.  They  will 
help  plan  also  the  work  of  the  manual  training  classes  in  the 
rural  and  village  schools  so  that  it  will  fit  into  the  needs  of 
the  farm,  the  garden  and  the  home. 

Special  programs, — The  county  agent  should  be  in- 
vited to  the  school,  and  especially  in  connection  with  the 
special  programs  of  an  industrial  and  agricultural  nature. 
His  help  can  be  secured  in  the  conducting  of  agricultural 
demonstrations,  the  judging  of  grains,  fruits,  vegetables 
and  stock,  and  the  organization  of  rural  games  and  con- 
tests. His  advice  will  be  valuable  in  determining  the  basis 
of  award  and  the  methods  of  judging  a  contest.  He  should 
also  be  consulted  with  reference  to  suitable  circulars  and 
Farmers'  Bulletins  for  correlation  reading  in  connection 
with  the  agricultural  and  home  economics  studies  of  the 
school. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Have  you  a  county  agricultural  agent  in  your 
county?  If  so,  who,  and  how  long  has  he  served  the 
county?  Where  is  his  office  located?  Who  pays  his  sal- 
ary? Has  the  county  a  lady  agent?  Who  is  she?  Tell 
something  about  the  character  of  her  work. 

2.  It  was  estimated  that  in  one  county  the  work 
of  the  various  leaders  increased  the  yield  of  corn  by  five 
bushels  an  acre  in  a  certain  year.  The  county  is  twenty- 
four  miles  square  and  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  area  is  un- 
der cultivation.  Of  that  under  cultivation  forty-five  per 
cent,  was  in  corn.  What  was  the  leaders'  help  on  the 
corn  crop  worth  to  the  county,  figuring  corn  at  fifty  cents 
a  bushel? 


486  AGRICULTURE 

3.  If  your  county  has  no  agent,  has  the  matter  of  se- 
curing one  been  discussed  ?  Do  you  know  what  steps  would 
have  to  be  taken  to  secure  an  agent?  How  would  the  ex- 
penses have  to  be  met?  If  you  are  not  certain  on  these 
questions  inquire  of  your  state  agricultural  college  or  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

4.  What  farm  projects  in  your  community  need  the 
advice  of  a  county  agent?  Do  you  know  of  land  that  is 
foul  or  run  down?  Pastures  that  are  weedy  or  dying  out? 
Swamps  that  need  drainage?  Orchards  that  do  not  bear 
profitably?  Flocks  or  herds  that  are  not  profitable?  Rav- 
ages of  insects  or  disease  that  cause  severe  loss?  Hogs 
dying  from  cholera? 

5.  On  what  farm  or  garden  project  would  you  espe- 
cially like  advice  from  an  agricultural  agent  in  order  to 
make  sure  of  success  the  first  year  ? 

6.  How  much  money  is  available  this  year  from  the 
Smith-Lever  Act  for  the  club  work,  county  agent  and  farm 
demonstration  movement?  Upon  what  conditions  is  this 
secured  and  how  is  it  administered?  What  part  of  this  does 
your  county  get? 

7.  Does  your  state  college  of  agriculture  have  an  ex- 
tension department?  If  so,  name  the  officers  and  leaders, 
such  as  director  of  extension,  state  agent  in  charge  of  club 
work,  state  agent  in  charge  of  county  agents  and  demon- 
stration work.  (Write  for  its  literature  on  club  activities 
extension  work.) 

8.  To  what  extent  do  the  Department  of  Education  and 
the  normal  schools  of  your  state  encourage  agricultural 
and  home  economic  education?  Do  they  have  officials  who 
give  direction  in  this  type  of  work  ?    Name  them. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 
FARM  IMPLEMENTS  AND  MECHANICS 

1.     Importance  of  Implements  and  Tools 

ONE  of  the  most  important  and  interesting  phases  of 
agriculture  is  the   study  of   farm   implements,   their 
origin,  history,  utility,  value,  proper  care  and  up-keep. 

Tillage  and  tools. — Good  crops  and  large  profits  usu- 
ally depend  upon  wise  management  and  proper  tillage ;  and 
good  tillage  requires  the  use  of  tools  adapted  to  the  soil, 
the  particular  crops,  and  the  condition  under  which  the 
farming  is  done.  It  is  poor  economy  to  farm  with  unfit 
tools,  or  implements  in  poor  repair.  On  the  other  hand 
it  is  possible  to  have  too  large  an  amount  of  money  in- 
vested in  farm  implements  and  machinery.  A  number  of 
the  larger  farm  machines,  such  as  corn  harvesters,  thrash- 
ing machines  or  shredders,  can  be  owned  cooperatively  in 
a  community  and  made  to  do  the  work  of  four  to  ten  farm- 
ers instead  of  one.  This  will  reduce  both  the  first  cost  and 
the  up-keep. 

The  care  of  machinery. — It  is  generally  considered 
that  a  machine  kept  in  good  repair,  and  well  housed  when 
not  in  use,  will  last  as  long  doing  the  work  of  five  farmers 
as  a  machine  owned  by  a  single  farmer  and  doing  but  one- 
fifth  of  the  work,  if  neglected  and  allowed  to  stand  out- 
of-doors  in  rain,  snow  and  all  kinds  of  weather  when  idle. 
There  is  no  better  test  of  the  progressiveness  and  good 
management  of  a  farm  than  the  way  the  farm  tools  and 
machinery  are  treated. 

487 


488 


AGRICULTURE 


A  young  farmer  mechauic  willi  a  well-equipped  sliop. 


Practical  farm  mechanics.     Umega  club  farmers,  Elmira,  X.  Y. 


FARM  IMPLEMENTS  AND  MECHANICS     4^9 

2.     The  Farmer  as  a  Mechanic 

Every  farmer  should,  at  least  to  a  degree,  be  a  me- 
chanic. This  is  not  with  a  view  to  manufacturing  imple- 
ments, or  even  to  the  building  of  his  own  barns  and  houses, 
but  to  enable  him  to  keep  the  implements,  barns  and  houses 
constantly  in  good  repair. 

The  farm  w^ork-shop. — A  great  many  dollars  can  be 
saved  on  the  average  farm  if  the  farmer  has  equipped  him- 
self with  a  little  work-shop  and  a  number  of  the  necessary 
repair  tools.  A  loose  bolt,  a  broken  rivet,  a  loosened  board, 
or  a  brace  out  of  position  can  easily  be  repaired  by  a  prac- 
tical farmer,  while  if  it  is  neglected  it  may  result  in  greater 
breakage,  with  the  consequent  loss  of  time  and  money.  A 
large  number  of  minor  pieces  of  farm  equipment,  such  as 
watering  and  feeding  troughs,  feed  racks,  seed  trays,  test 
boxes,  fireless  cookers,  bins,  shelving,  wagon  boxes  and 
hog  racks  can  profitably  be  made  in  the  farm  shop. 

There  are  always  plenty  of  rainy  days  and  occasionally 
periods  of  time  when  the  rush  and  heavy  work  of  the  fields 
have  been  completed  and  an  opportunity  given  for  repair 
work  and  the  making  of  practical  necessities  belonging  to 
the  farm. 

Manual  training  and  the  farm  boy. — A  farmer  boy's 
education  has  no  more  important  part  than  training  in  the 
use  of  farm  tools  and  the  application  of  the  ordinary  me- 
chanical work  needed  about  barns,  fences  and  machines. 
This  phase  of  training  should  be  correlated  with  the  man- 
ual-training courses  in  the  public  school.  The  manual 
training  learned  by  the  farmer  boy  should  relate  to  farm 
needs.  Every  farmer  boy  should  master  the  practical  prin- 
ciples of  painting,  the  mixing  and  use  of  paint,  and  the 
relation  of  color  schemes.  For  the  use  of  paint  not  only 
beautifies,  but  conserves  buildings,   fences  and  machinery. 

The  use  of  cement. — Cement  has  come  to  be  one  of 


490 


AGRICULTURE 


A  modern  type  of  cow  pen. 


A  deep  tilling  plow,  with  two  disks. 


FARM  IMPLEMENTS  AND  MECHANICS     491 

the  most  important  economies  of  a  farm  homestead.  Every 
boy  will  want  to  know  something  about  the  making  of  con- 
crete, and  the  proper  methods  of  mixing  and  surfacing.  He 
should  understand  the  making  of  molds,  the  laying  of  foun- 
dations for  cement  structure,  and  the  application  of  cement 
to  the  construction  of  silos,  water-tanks,  fence  posts, 
bridges,  feeding  floors,  etc. 

3.     Rope  Tying  and  Splicing 

One  of  the  elementary  yet  most  interesting  divisions  of 
farm  mechanics  is  rope  tying  and  splicing.  The  place  of 
the  rope  in  farm  management  is  very  much  the  same  as  the 
relation  of  the  nail  to  the  builder.  Ropes  are  also  widely 
used  in  other  occupations,  and  the  lives  of  many  workmen 
often  depend  on  the  strength  of  a  rope  or  the  security  of  a 
knot. 

The  uses  of  ropes. — Long  before  farm  machinery  was 
invented  or  useful  implements  invented,  rope  tying  and 
splicing  bore  a  very  important  relation  to  the  work  of  agri- 
culture. The  first  harness  was  made  of  rope.  Joints  and 
splicings  were  made  with  rope  long  before  the  day  of  bolts, 
rivets  and  other  metal  devices  for  the  joining  of  parts  in 
farm  machinery.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  we  have  to-day 
all  manner  of  improved  farm  machinery  we  still  need  the 
convenience  and  economy  made  possible  by  the  use  of  the 
rope  in  knot  tying  and  splicing. 

Some  knots  useful  on  the  farm. — Some  of  the  prac- 
tical rope  knots  are  as  follows :  the  clove-hitch ;  bowline ; 
never-slip  noose ;  slipknot ;  Beckett  hitch ;  reef-knot,  or 
square  knot,  which  never  slips  but  is  always  easily  untied  \ 
the  two  half-hitches  often  used  for  the  halter-hitch;  weav- 
er's knot  for  the  joining  of  small  cords;  fixed  knot;  anchor 
bend ;  timber-hitch,  which  can  be  easily  untied  but  never 
slips;  and  the  carrick-bend  for  joining  ropes. 


492 


AGRICULTURE 


1*15.  1. — Orefhanii  Ki«jt.  pj^,  2.— FtwrfoW  Ovrrhind  /Cnot.  Looftt!  ftod  T»at.  yjp,  3.— Fi^««»-of.«igi»t  Kaot. 


~V'^y  Knot,  T»Bt. 


Iflomwh  Kaol  Jominj  Two  iw(»». 


Some  useful  kuots.     Learn  to  identify  and  tie. 


FARM  IMPLEMENTS  AND  MECHANICS     493 

Making  the  right  knot. — Different  knots  are  required 
for  different  purposes.  A  simple  knot  that  will  serve  in 
one  use  is  not  adapted  to  another;  knots  that  will  untie 


'■^;:jf^ 


Learn  to  "do"  these  knots  and  rope  splicings. 

under  certain  conditions  may  be  impossible  to  untie  under 
other  conditions.* 


1.  A  most  interesting  little  book  on  rope  knotting  and 
splicing  is  one  published  by  David  McKay,  Philadelphia.  50 
cents.  A  number  of  the  drawings  here  shown  are  taken  by  per- 
mission of  the  company  from  this  set. 


494  AGRICULTURE 

Principles  of  knot  tying. — Certain  principles  apply  to 
the  tying  of  all  knots.  The  efficiency  of  the  knot  does 
not  depend  on  the  number  of  turns  or  hitches,  but  on  the 
position  of  the  **nip.''  The  bend  or  hitch  must  be  so  formed 
that  the  part  of  the  rope  under  strain  nips  securely  some 
portion  of  the  knot,  either  against  itself  or  the  object  to 
which  it  is  attached.  The  nip  of  each  different  knot  should 
be  studied. 

Rope  materials. — While  a  large  part  of  our  rope  and 
cordage  is  made  of  hemp,  many  other  materials  are  now 
coming  to  enter  into  their  manufacture.  The  coil  rope  is 
made  from  cocoanut  fiber,  which  is  used  because  it  is  so 
light  and  pliable.  This  rope  is  useful  for  warps,  rocket 
lines,  life-buoy  lines,  nets,  etc.  Manila  grass  is  adapted  to 
the  construction  of  coarse  ropes  and  hawsers  requiring 
great  strength  and  hard  wear,  and  where  tar  can  not  be  used 
on  the  rope. 

Strips  of  hides  are  used  for  ropes  where  great  strength 
and  pliability  with  small  diameter  are  needed.  Cotton  is 
employed  for  ropes  and  cordage  used  for  fancy  work  of 
all  kinds.  Wire  is  used  for  rope  making  whenever  very 
great  strength  is  needed,  as  in  connection  with  dredging 
machinery,  suspension  bridge  cables  and  the  like. 

Rope  making. —  Yarns  are  formed  by  twisting  the 
hemp  right-handed,  while  the  ''strands''  are  made  by  twist- 
ing or  laying  up  the  yarns  left-handed,  and  the  rope  by 
laying  it  up  in  strands  right-handed.  Three  small  ropes 
laid  up  left-handed  form  a  cable-laid  rope.  Four-stranded 
ropes  are  laid  round  a  heart.  In  using  hemp  for  rope  mak- 
ing, great  care  should  be  exercised  not  to  twist  the  hemp 
more  than  necessary,  as  this  weakens  the  rope.  A  three- 
stranded  rope  will  bear  a  greater  strain  in  comparison  to  its 
size  than  any  other  rope  of  the  same  material.  This  ac- 
counts for  the  fact  that  most  of  our  rope  is  made  of  three 


FARM  IMPLEMENTS  AND  MECHANICS     495 

strands.     Cable-laid  and  four-stranded  ropes  are  as  a  rule 
about  one-fifth  weaker. 


Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Make  a  list  of  all  your  farm  machinery  and  esti- 
mate the  value.  Talk  with  your  father  and  determine  the 
annual  expense  of  the  farm  machinery  in  deterioration  and 
interest  on  the  investment.  How  is  your  machinery  housed  ? 
Is  it  kept  in  good  repair? 

2.  Make  a  similar  list  of  all  your  shop  tools.  Have  you 
all  that  are  needed  for  the  up-keep  of  your  farm  buildings 
and  machinery? 

3.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  knots  you  have  ever  seen  used 
on  the  farm.  Tie  all  these  knots.  What  other  knots  would 
be  serviceable?  Learn  to  tie  other  useful  knots  from  the 
pictures  shown  in  this  chapter. 

4.  If  you  wanted  to  draw  a  plank  from  the  ground  up 
to  the  gable  window  of  a  barn  by  use  of  a  rope,  what  knot 
would  you  use  ?  Think  of  several  other  such  uses  for  knots 
and  show  the  knots  to  be  employed. 

5.  Make  a  rope  halter  for  a  horse  or  calf.  Show  how 
they  are  made  and  for  what  purpose  they  are  used. 

6.  Locate  on  a  map  of  the  world  the  places  where 
the  different  rope  materials  are  produced.  Make  a  collec- 
tion of  all  the  different  kinds  of  rope  available,  and  tell  of 
what  they  are  made. 


4.     Rope  Play  Contests 

1.  Knot  naming  contest. 

2.  Rope  judging  contest. 

3.  Knot  tying  and  splicing  contest,  to  see  who  can  tie 
and  name  accurate 'y  the  largest  number  of  rope  knots  in  a 
period  of  five  minutes.  Contest  to  be  judged  on  skill,  ac- 
curacy and  number  of  knots  tied. 

4.  Rope  spelling  contest,  to  be  conducted  from  the  list 

33 


496 


AGRICULTURE 


of  words  used  in  connection  with  rope,  cordage  and.  splic- 
ing work,  the  object  being  to  make  pupils  familiar  with 
the  terms. 

5.  *  Knot  drawing  contest. 

5.     Rope  Club  Projects 

It  is  possible  to  organize  a  group  of  boys  into  a  rope 
club  with  a  view  to  the  mastery  of  rope  tying,  splicing. 


A  rope  tying  contest,  Wright  County,  Iowa.     Record  by  one 
boy,  thirty-eight  Imots  tied,  named  and  untied,  in  six  minutes. 


cordage  work,  etc.  The  requirements  should  be  to  study 
in  connection  with  geography  the  various  fibers  used,  such 
as  hemp,  cotton  and  cocoanut.  The  method  of  production  of 
the  plants,  a  study  of  uses  of  rope,  and  their  practical  appli- 
cation to  farm  and  home  mechanics  should  be  taken  up.  The 
basis  of  award  of  a  club  project  of  this  sort  may  be  as 
fo^^ows: 


FARM  IMPLEMENTS  AND  MECHANIC?     497 

1.  Knowledge  of  origin,  development  and  methods  of  manu- 

facture of  the  rope  industry 20 

2.  Ability  to  name  and  tell  the  use  of  knots  and  splicings 20 

3.  Exhibit  of  knots  and  splicings  named  and  mounted   on 

board.      (Use    quarter-inch    rope.)    20 

4.  Skill  shown  by  actual  test  in  the  tying  and  naming  of 

rope  knots 20 

5.  Written  story  of  "Rope  Tying  and  Splicing  as  Related  to 

Farm  Mechanics" 20 

Total  score 100 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 
ROAD  BUILDING  AND  MAINTENANCE 

GOOD  public  roads  are  a  prime  necessity  to  successful 
agriculture  and  rural  development.     They  add  to  the 
pleasure,  profit  and  convenience  of  the  farm. 

1.  Importance  of  Public  Roads 
There  are  in  the  United  States  about  two  million  tv^o 
hundred  thousand  miles  of  roads.  Of  this  immense  stretch 
of  public  highway,  two  million  miles  are  classed  as  earth 
roads.  This  is  to  say  that  we  have  enough  earth  roads  to 
circle  the  globe  eighty  times  at  the  equator. 

Good  roads  and  prosperity. — A  study  of  history 
shows  that  every  great  and  prosperous  nation  has  built  a 
good  system  of  public  roads,  while  primitive  and  unpro- 
gressive  peoples  are  satisfied  with  poor  roads.  In  our 
own  country  we  find  the  most  prosperous  and  progressive 
communities  are  those  that  are  giving  attention  to  their 
roads. 

Need  for  good  roads. — Because  good  roads  allow  the 
farmer  to  haul  his  produce  to  market  at  a  minimum  of  ex- 
pense in  time  and  energy,  he  can  make  more  profit  out  of 
his  crops  and  stock.  And  the  prosperity  of  the  farmer 
tends  to  increase  the  prosperity  of  all  business  men  and 
lower  the  cost  of  living  to  consumers.  The  success  of  the 
rural  schools  also  depends  much  on  improved  roads.  Es- 
pecially is  this  true  where  the  schools  are  being  consoli- 
dated and  the  pupils  transported  to  the  school  by  the 
district.  Rural  mail  delivery  and  the  extension  of  the  parcel- 

498 


ROAD  BUILDING  AND  MAINTENANCE     499 


An  earth  road  that  needs  improving. 


500  AGRICULTURE 

post  system  further  demand  the  improvement  of  country 
roads.  And,  not  least  important,  the  making  of  country 
Hfe  interesting  and  attractive  rests  in  no  small  degree  on 
good  roads,  for  they  allow  rural  people  easily  to  travel  about 
the  community  for  social  as  well  as  for  business  purposes. 

Growing  movement  for  good  roads. — In  nearly  every 
part  of  the  United  States  there  is  at  present  a  growing 
interest  in  good  roads.  New  laws  have  been  passed  and 
millions  of  money  appropriated  to  improve  our  roads.  Com- 
mercial clubs,  business  concerns  and  other  organizations  are 
working  together  to  encourage  road  building.  And  farm- 
ers are  coming  to  demand  improved  roads  for  both  teaming 
and  the  use  of  automobiles. 

2.     Types  of  Roads 

Roads  are  generally  considered  under  the  following 
types:  (1)  earth  roads,  (2)  sand  clay  roads,  (3)  gravel 
roads,  (4)  macadam  roads,  (5)  bituminous  macadam  roads, 
(6)  brick  roads,  and  (7)  concrete  roads.  The  discussion 
in  this  chapter  will  be  confined  to  the  earth  roads,  since 
these  are  the  most  necessary  and  practical  study  for  the 
public  schools. 

Earth  roads. — A  chain  is  no  stronger  than  its  weak- 
est link;  so,  also,  a  road  is  no  better  than  its  poorest  part. 
This  means  that  the  heaviest  load  that  can  be  drawn  over 
a  public  highway  is  the  load  that  can  be  drawn  up  the 
steepest  hill,  through  the  worst  ruts  or  mud-holes,  or  over 
the  deepest  stretch  of  sand.  Hence  the  importance  of  low- 
ering or  going  around  the  hill,  and  eliminating  the  mud- 
holes,  ruts  and  stretches  of  sand. 

3.    The  Location  of  a  Road 

Public  roads  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  located  in 
straight  lines.     In  hilly  or  mountainous  regions,  however, 


ROAD  BUILDING  AND  MAINTENANCE     501 


'  f?ooa  (Appian  iVay). 


rtiiitBl 


1^ 


Cross  Seaiion  French  Road (ffomon  Me/hoc/J, 
preyt'oi/s  to  ms. 


Cross  Section  of  Tresaugue-f  Road,  mS. 


S^^^ 


i"..~\  rv,v 


Cross  Section  Macadam  Road,  16(6. 


Cross  Section  of  Moderrt  Macadam (i4assochuseffs)  Road 

wiffi  [^shaped  foundoh'ori. 


Cross  Section  of  /''Modern  Mocodom  Rood. 


Cross-sections  of  different  types  of  roads. 


502 


AGRICULTURE 


this  rule  must  often  give  way  to  avoid  the  climbing  of  too 
heavy  grades. 

Straightness  and  grade. — To  lift  a  ton  one  foot  high 
requires  tv^^o  thousand  foot-tons  of  energy.  On  a  road  sur- 
face requiring  one  hundred  pounds  traction  per  ton,  the 
same  energy  would  roll  the  ton  a  horizontal  distance  of 
twenty  feet.  As  far  as  the  actual  amount  of  energy  used  is 
concerned,  therefore,  to  save  one  foot  of  grade,  or  up-hill 


Earth  road  in  Kansas. 


climb,  the  road  may  be  lengthened  twenty  feet.  Public 
road  grades  should  avoid  a  rise  of  more  than  six  feet  in  a 
distance  of  one  hundred  feet.  The  hills  should  be  cut  down 
and  the  material  used  to  fill  in  the  hollows  or  else  the  road 
relocated  to  go  around  the  hill  and  to  avoid  the  steep  grades. 
The  necessity  of  sunlight. — Every  road  bed  should 
have  at  least  six  hours  of  sunlight  each  day.  Brush,  trees 
or  hedges  that  interfere  with  this  requirement  should  be 
cleared  away  or  sufficiently  thinned  out.    On  the  other  hand. 


ROAD  BUILDING  AND  MAINTENANCE     503 

suitable  trees,  shrubbery,  grass,  vines  and  flowers  should 
be  encouraged  along  the  roadway,  as  they  add  both  to  the 
beauty  of  the  road  and  the  value  of  farms. 

Drainage. — As  a  rule  the  only  ditches  needed  for  the 
proper  drainage  of  the  road  can  be  made  by  the  road  grader. 
Deeper  ditches  are  necessary  where  the  adjoining  land  is 
low  and  level.  In  the  building  of  culverts  care  should  be 
taken  to  make  them  large  enough  to  handle  the  overflow. 
They  must  also  be  sufficiently  durable  to  resist  the  spring 


Concrete  road  near  Detroit. 

freshets  and  not  be  injured  by  the  maximum  flow  caused 
by  storm  water.  They  should  have  sufficient  slope  so  that 
the  wash  will  keep  them  clean.  All  the  spillways  should 
be  paved,  if  necessary,  and  the  outlet  and  inlet  protected 
by  suitable  head  and  wing  walls. 

4.     The  Construction  of  Earth  Roads 

Shaping  the  road  bed. — Earth  roads  should  not  be 
made  too  wide.  Twenty-four  to  thirty  feet  is  sufficient  un- 
less the  road  is  to  be  macadamized  or  otherwise  permanently 


504  AGRICULTURE 

improved.  All  roads  should  be  properly  crowned  or 
rounded  in  order  to  aid  them  in  disposing  quickly  of  sur- 
face water.  An  earth  road  twenty-four  feet  wide  should 
not  be  less  than  six  inches  nor  more  than  twelve  inches 
higher  at  the  center  than  at  each  of  the  borders.  The  total 
fall  from  center  to  side  should  be  about  an  inch  to  the  foot. 
The  work  of  construction. — The  earth  roads  can  best 
be  crowned  and  ditched  by  a  reversible  road  grader.  The 
use  of  picks,  shovels,  scoops  and  plows  should  be  avoided. 
One  road  machine  with  sufficient  power  and  a  good  opera- 
tor will  do  the  work  of  a  large  number  of  men  and  do  it 
much  better.  Graders  as  a  rule  should  be  used  when  the 
soil  is  damp.  This  will  make  the  soil  pack  well  while  dry- 
ing. If  it  is  worked  when  dry  and  hard  it  takes  more  power 
to  draw  the  machine  and  in  addition  the  dry  earth  and  dust 
will  absorb  and  retain  moisture  and  soon  develop  ruts.  All 
clods,  sod,  weeds  and  vegetable  matter  should  be  removed. 

5.    Maintenance  of  Earth  Roads 

Necessity  of  constant  care. — The  greatest  problem  of 
earth  road  building  is  that  of  maintenance,  and  any  earth 
road  which  carries  a  great  deal  of  traffic  requires  almost 
constant  attention.  Repairs  should  be  made  when  needed. 
A  few  days  spent  upon  the  road  at  different  times  through- 
out the  year  will  accomplish  a  great  deal.  It  is  a  serious 
mistake  to  devote  all  of  the  time  in  road  building  to  a  par- 
ticular season,  leaving  the  road  without  care  the  remainder 
of  the  year.  Most  communities  need  a  few  men  and  teams 
spending  their  entire  time  in  keeping  roads  in  repair. 

Dragging  earth  roads. — One  of  the  most  useful  de- 
vices for  the  maintenance  of  public  earth  roads  is  the  split- 
log  drag.  This  works  with  great  efficiency  on  both  earth 
and  gravel   roads.     To   obtain  the  best   results   the   roads 


ROAD  BUILDING  AND  MAINTENANCE     505 

should  be  dragged  once  each  way  after  every  heavy  ram. 
This  must  be  done  v^hile  the  soil  is  moist  but  not  sticky. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  employ  the  direct  supervision  of 
skilled  engineers  for  the  maintenance  and  repair  of  earth 
and  gravel  roads,  providing  the  directions  and  suggestions 
they  lay  dov^n  are  carefully  and  intelligently  followed.     A 


The  split-log  drag  at  work  on  an  Iowa  road. 


difficult  piece  of  construction  or  fixing  of  grades  should, 
however,  always  be  carried  out  under  the  supervision  of  an 
expert. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  What  is  the  prevailing  type  of  road  in  your  local- 
ity? How  many  miles  of  public  roads  in  your  school  dis- 
trict?    In  your  county? 

2.  What  roads  do  you  know  which  climb  steep  hills? 
Can  you  devise  a  method  by  which  you  can  measure  the 


506  AGRICULTURE 

grade  of  the  incline,  and  find  how  many  feet  rise  to  each 
one  hundred  feet? 

3.  Hov/  many  split-log  drags  in  your  school  district? 
What  road  machinery  is  owned  by  the  township  or  road 
district  ? 

4.  Under  what  management  is  the  care  of  roads  in 
your  locality?  Name  the  road  officials  of  your  district 
and  county.  Give  a  statement  of  the  road  laws  of  your 
state. 

5.  What  different  materials  are  used  in  constructing 
bridges,  culverts  and  road  drainage  systems  in  your  local- 
ity ?    Which  seems  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  ? 

6.  Do  any  transcontinental  or  state  highways  pass 
through  your  state?  If  so,  locate  them  on  a  state  map 
and  name  them. 

7.  For  whom  was  the  macadam  road  named  ?  Describe 
how  such  a  road  is  built. 

8.  Look  up  the  story  of  each  of  the  following  men  and 
learn  what  he  did  to  help  the  cause  of  good  roads :  Pierre- 
Marie  Fresaguet,  J.  L.  MacAdam,  Thomas  Tilford,  Eli 
Whitney  Blake. 

6.     Demonstrations 

Many  of  the  demonstrations  should  be  conducted  out  on 
the  public  highway  and  when  possible  under  the  supervi- 
sion or  direction  of  the  road  supervisor,  commissioner,  or 
expert. 

1.  Demonstrate  how  to  make  a  split-log  drag,  either 
full  size  or  miniature. 

2.  Demonstrate  by  means  of  drawing,  paper  or  wood 
construction,  the  various  types  of  drainage  used  in  road 
building. 

3.  Show  how  properly  to  crown  a  road. 

4.  Demonstrate  how  to  repair  a  rut  in  a  permanent 
roadway. 

5.  Demonstrate  by  drawing  a  roadway  showing  cor- 
rect perspective,  crowning,  drainage,  etc. 


ROAD  BUILDING  AND  MAINTENANCE     507 


Bituminous  macadam  luad  in  New  Jersey. 


508  AGRICULTURE 

7.    Road  Play  Contests 

1.  Road  dragging  contest. 

2.  Split-log  drag  making  contest. 

3.  Road  drawing  contest. 

4.  Essay  writing  contest  on  subjects  relating  to  roads. 

5.  Spelling  and   drawing   contests,   as   related   to   the 
words  and  interests  of  road  work. 


A  concrete  bridge.    This  type  of  structure  should  replace  the 
old  wooden  bridge. 

8.    Road  Club  Projects 

Permanent  road  building  is  not,  as  a  rule,  the  work  of 
boys  and  girls.  But  the  building,  maintenance  and  repair 
of  common  earth  and  gravel  roads  is  quite  within  the  reach 
of  the  boys  ranging  in  age  from  twelve  to  nineteen.  Two 
diflferent  road  projects  are  suited  to  club  work. 

One  project  is  known  as  the  ''School  Road  Dragging 
Club,"  in  which  the  pupils,  under  the  leadership  of  the 
teacher  and  with  the  advice  of  the  road  officer,  take  charge 
of  one  mile  of  public  highway  near  the  schoolhouse,  keep- 
ing it  well  dragged  and  in  repair  for  the  season.  A  second 
project  permits  individual  pupils  to  take  charge  of  one  mile 
of  road  in  front  of  the  homestead,  keeping  it  carefully 
'^ragged  and  in  good  repair  during  the  summer. 


ROAD  BUILDING  AND  MAINTENANCE       509 

Awards. — The  basis  of  award  in  either  of  these  club 
projects  may  be  as  follows : 

1.  General  improvement  in  road  during  period  of  club  pro- 

ject, based  upon  trueness,  alignment,  regularity  and 
clearness  of  ditches,  amount  and  shape  of  crown,  bet- 
terment of  surface  and  drainage  15 

2.  General   condition   of   improved   section  at   end   of   club 

project  period  with  reference  to  clearness  of  ditches, 
waterways,  trueness,  and  shape  of  borders,  freedom 
from  ruts  and  depressions,  smoothness,  compactness, 
regularity  of  width 15 

3.  Economy  of  methods  used,  based  on  ten  cents  per  hour 

for  time  of  horse,  and  ten  to  twenty  cents  per  hour  for 
member    15 

4.  Complete  records  and  story  of  "The  Road  Work  of  the 

Season"    '. 15 

5.  Faithfulness  of  maintenance  during  club  project  period 

with  reference  to  freedom  of  flow  in  ditches  and 
waterways,  repair  of  borders  and  washes,  rapidity  of 
drying  out  and  hardening  after  rains,  and  the  regular- 
ity and  systematic  use  of  the  split-log  drag— 40 

Total  score 100 

The  authors  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Maurice  O.  Eldridge,  of 
the  office  of  Good  Roads,  Washington,  D.  C,  for  able  assistance 
in  the  preparation  of  this  chapter,  and  to  the  office  of  Public 
Roads  for  photographs  used. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 
BIRDS  AND  OTHER  INSECT  DESTROYKRS 

THE  farmer  is  greatly  assisted  in  his  war  against  the 
insects  that  prey  on  crops,  orchards  and  gardens  by  birds 
and  other  creatures  that  use  these  pests  for  food.  Every 
farm  boy  and  girl  should  learn  the  most  useful  of  these 
small  friends  and  protect  them  in  every  way. 

1.     Birds  and  Their  Food 

Whether  certain  birds  are  helpful  or  harmful  to  the 
farmer  depends  almost  wholly  on  what  the  bird  eats.  If 
its  diet  consists  chiefly  of  farm  grains  and  domestic  fruits, 
or  if  the  bird  kills  other  useful  birds,  it  is  an  enemy;  if, 
on  the  other  hand,  its  food  is  made  up  mainly  of  harmful 
bugs,  beetles,  grasshoppers,  caterpillars  and  worms,  it  should 
be  counted  as  a  friend.  It  is  also  to  be  remembered  that 
many  birds  that  eat  grain  or  fruit  as  a  part  of  their  diet 
may  kill  enough  noxious  insects  in  return  to  pay  far  more 
than  for  the  damage  they  do.  Besides  devouring  insects, 
many  species  of  birds  eat  immense  quantities  of  weed  seed, 
thus  reducing  the  weed  crop  of  the  next  season. 

Food  of  some  common  birds. — Scientists  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  have  examined 
the  stomachs  of  many  birds  to  determine  the  nature  of  their 
food,  and  thus  discover  their  relation  to  agriculture: 

The  quail  or  bobwhite  eats  weed  seed,  potato  beetles, 
squash  beetles,  the  boll  weevil,  chinch-bug,  grasshoppers, 
cutworms,  etc. 

510 


BIRDS  AND  OTHER  INSECT  DESTROYERS  511 


A  favorite  food  of  the  birds. 


512  AGRICULTURE 

Mourning  doves  live  principally  on  weed  seed,  with  a 
small  proportion  of  waste  grain. 

Cuckoos  live  chiefly  on  caterpillars,  grasshoppers, 
beetles,  moths  and  other  harmful  insects. 

The  red-headed  woodpecker  makes  three-quarters  of  his 
diet  consist  of  harmful  insects,  and  most  of  the  rest  of 
weed  seed  and  wild  fruit.  ;. 

The  night  hawk  is  especially  fond  of  flying  ants,  but  alsg;^ 
eats  grasshoppers,  beetles  and  bugs.  ''"%. 

Bank  swallows  and  barn  swallows  live  almost  entirely 
on  flies,  various  species  of  flying  beetles,  ants  and  weevils. 

The  grosbeaks  are  among  the  most  useful  of  our  birds.      f: 
They  are  particularly  fond  of  potato  beetles,  and  have  done 
much  to  rid  the  farmers  of  this  pest.     They  also  eat  other 
harmful  insects. 

The  barn  owl  lives  principally  on  mice,  rats  and  rab- 
bits. While  he  captures  an  occasional  chicken,  he  does  far 
more  good  than  harm  and  should  be  protected. 

The  crow  is  usually  looked  upon  as  a  thief  and  a  rob- 
ber. There  is  no  doubt  that  the  crow  does  pull  up  young 
corn,  rob  birds'  nests  and  occasionally  kill  young  chickens. 
Yet  the  crow  is  so  fond  of  beetles,  grasshoppers,  bugs  and 
other  crop  enemies  that  his  virtues  exceed  his  vices  and  he 
should  be  counted  as  a  friend. 

Other  useful  birds. — It  will  not  be  necessary  to  ex- 
tend this  list,  which  might  be  made  to  include  scores  of 
birds  that  join  wnth  the  farmer  in  his  efforts  to  rid  the 
crops  of  insect  pests.  Among  the  many  species  that  should 
be  encouraged  and  protected  are :  meadow  lark,  house  wren, 
song  sparrow,  oriole,  scissor-tail  fly  catcher,  mocking-bird, 
blue  jay,  red-winged  blackbird,  cardinal,  red-headed  wood- 
pecker, killdeer,  screech  owl,  robin,  bluebird,  snow  bird, 
warbler,  kinglet.  In  general,  the  birds  are  the  farmer's 
friends  and  deserve  his  good  will. 


BIRDS  AND  OTHER  INSECT  DESTROYERS    513 


5^ 


The  hairy  and  downy  woodpeckers. 


514  AGRICULTURE 

Harmful  birds. — A  few  species  of  birds  do  much  more 
harm  than  good  and  therefore  do  not  merit  protection. 

The  English  sparrow  has  been  declared  a  pest  and  should 
be  exterminated.  While  in  some  regions  it  eats  a  certain 
proportion  of  weed  seed  and  harmful  insects,  on  the  whole 
its  diet  consists  of  orchard  fruits,  young  garden  vegetables 
and  field  grains,  especially  wheat.  It  also  eats  the  eggs 
and  attacks  the  young  of  a  score  of  useful  birds,  thus  re- 
ducing their  number.  Campaigns  of  extermination  have 
been  waged  against  the  English  sparrow  in  various  parts  of 
the  country. 

The  house  finch  and  the  sapsucker  also  do  sufficient  dam- 
age that  they  have  no  claim  to  the  farmer's  good  will  or 
protection. 

2.     Other  Enemies  of  Harmful  Insects  and  Animals 

Besides  birds  a  number  of  other  creatures,  most  of  them 
so  lowly  as  all  but  to  escape  observation,  are  good  friends 
of  the  farmer. 

The  toad. — The  common  ugly  toad,  which  we  often 
either  avoid  or  kick  out  of  our  path,  deserves  better  treat- 
ment. Its  food  consists  of  flies,  caterpillars,  cutworms, 
June-bugs  and  other  harmful  insects. 

The  horned  lizard  fancies  almost  the  same  bill  of  fare 
and  joins  with  the  toad  to  protect  our  gardens. 

Snakes. — The  small  snakes  common  to  most  regions 
are  entirely  harmless,  and  live  on  our  enemies,  such  as 
mice,  various  beetles  and  weevils.  It  is  therefore  a  mis- 
take to  kill  them. 

3.    Protecting  Our  Friends 

Young  people  should  make  a  study  of  the  life  and 
habits  of  the  humble  friends  who  do  their  best  to  rid  our 


BIRDS  AND  OTHER  INSECT  DESTROYERS    515 


The  meadow  lark. 


516 


AGRICULTURE 


fields  and  gardens  of  their  enemies,  and  should  always  en- 
courage and  protect  them. 

Attracting  the  birds. — Bird  houses  consisting  of  small 
boxes  roofed  over,  cans  open  at  one  end,  or  other  suitable 
receptacles  placed  in  trees  or  on  posts  in  secluded  places 
will  do  much  to  attract  certain  birds.  When  deep  snow 
covers  the  ground  in  winter,  hiding  the  seeds  and  other 


English  sparrows,  male  and  female. 


food,   it   will  pay  well  to  scatter  a   little   grain   each   day 
where  the  non-migrating  birds  will  find  it. 

How  to  treat  a  friend. — Bird  hunting  should  not  be 
with  a  gun,  but  with  a  camera,  field  glass  or  alert  eyes  for 
the  purpose  of  becoming  acquainted  with  our  feathered 
friends.     Birds'  nests  should  never  be  disturbed,  the  eggs 


BIRDS  AND  OTHER  INSECT  DESTROYERS  517 

handled  or  the  young  worried  during  nesting  time.  The 
fashion  which  decorates  hats  with  the  plumage  of  birds, 
thus  requiring  their  destruction,  should  be  severely  con- 
demned. We  should  even  come  to  look  upon  toads,  lizards, 
snakes  and  frogs  as  our  friends  and  treat  them  well. 

Topics  for  Investigation 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  birds  you  are  able  to  identify  at 
sight.    Do  you  know  the  nesting  habits  of  each  of  these? 

2.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  birds'  eggs  you  are  able  to 
identify.    Dp  you  know  the  hatching  time  of  each  ? 

3.  Secure  a  copy  of  Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  54  and 
506,  and  make  a  table  of  the  food  of  each  of  the  common 
birds  of  your  locality. 

4.  What  birds  remain  over  winter  in  your  region? 
What  ones  migrate  and  where  do  they  go? 

5.  Watch  for  toads,  lizards  and  snakes  and  observe 
their  feeding  habits. 

6.  Keep  a  lookout  for  birds  you  do  not  recognize,  and 
find  out  their  names  and  habits. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 
MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION 

1.    How  to  Remove  Stains 

Iron  rust. — Apply  salt  and  lemon  juice  to  the  damp- 
ened spots.  Place  in  the  sun  or  near  the  fire.  Then  rinse 
or  wash  thoroughly. 

Fruit  stains. — Pour  over  stained  cloth,  boiling  water, 
letting  it  fall  a  distance  of  four  or  five  feet,  or  wring  article 
out  of  cold  water  and  leave  out-of-doors  over  a  cold  night. 

Blood  stains. — All  fresh  blood  stains  can  be  easily 
rubbed  out  after  soaking  in  cold  or  tepid  water.  After 
the  blood  has  been  dried,  use  javelle  water  or  peroxide  of 
hydrogen.    Kerosene  is  sometimes  used  with  success. 

Paint  spots. — Use  equal  parts  of  ammonia  and  turpen- 
tine.   Wash  or  rub  until  clean. 

Grass  stains. — Remove  grass  stains  by  the  use  of 
alcohol,  naphtha  soap,  or  ammonia  and  water. 

Ink. — The  commercial  ink  eradicator  will  remove  ink 
stains  from  all  white  goods.  If  used  on  colored  goods  it 
will  probably  bleach  or  remove  color.  Another  practical 
recipe  is  to  wet  the  spot  with  warm  water  and  sapolio,  rub 
or  polish  between  the  hands,  wash  in  a  solution  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  rinse  in  ammonia  water. 

Mildew. — Mix»equal  parts  of  soap  and  starch,  half 
as  much  common  salt,  and  juice  of  half  a  lemon.  Spread 
over  the  spots  and  lay  garment  upon  the  grass  until  the 
stain  disappears. 

518 


MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION  519 

Perspiration. — Soak  in  cold  water,  wash  with  borax 
and  spread  garment  to  dry  in  sunlight.  Under-arm  stains 
usually  require  an  acid  such  as  a  weak  solution  of  muriatic 
acid. 

Burned  cooking  utensils. — To  clean  granite  ware 
where  mixtures  have  been  burned  on  the  surface,  fill  con- 
tainer half  full  of  water,  add  good  soap,  washing  powder, 
or  baking  soda.  Bring  water  to  a  boiling  point  and  scrub 
with  a  small  brush. 

Tea,  coffee  or  cocoa. — Wash  with  cold  water,  pour 
glycerine  over  spots  and  let  stand  for  a  few  hours.  Then 
wash  with  cold  water  and  hard  soap.  If  stains  are  fresh, 
pour  over  the  stains  boiling  water  from  a  height  of  four  or 
five  feet,  after  soaking. 

Tar  or  wagon  grease. — Use  cold  soap-suds. 

Pit  stains. — Grease  with  lard  before  using  soap  and 
water.  Turpentine  will  usually  remove  the  stains  if  other 
remedies  fail. 

2.     Location  of  Colleges  of  Agriculture,  Extension  Depart- 
ments and  Experiment  Stations 

Letters  addressed  to  any  of  these  institutions,  request- 
ing information  on  agriculture  or  home  economics  subjects 
will  be  answered  with  courtesy.  Help  will  be  rendered  or 
farm  bulletins  supplied  when  possible. 


520  AGRICULTURE 


orp.rpp.  College  of  Extension  Experiment 

bTATE  Agriculture  Departmeut  Station 

Alabama Auburu Auburn Auburn 

Uniontown    (Sub.) 
Tuskegee    (negro) 

Arizona Tucson .  Tucson Tucson 

Arkansas Fayettevilie Fayetteville Fayetteville 

California Berkeley Berkeley Berkeley 

Colorado Fort   Collins Fort  Collins Fort    Collins 

Connecticut Storrs Storrs Storrs 

New    Haven 

Delaware Newark Newark Newark 

Florida Gainesville Gainesville Gainesville 

Georgia Athens Athens Experiment 

Hawaii Honolulu Honolulu Honolulu 

Idaho Moscow Boise Moscow 

Illinois ^     T'rbana Urbana T'rbana 

Indiana Lafayette Lafayette Lafayette 

Iowa Ames Ames Ames 

Kansas Manhattan Manhattan Manhattan 

Kentucky : Lexington Lexington Lexington 

Louisiana Baton   Rouge Eaton   Rouge Baton   Rouge 

New    Orleans New    Orleans Auburn  Park  (brch.) 

Calhoun    (branch) 
Crowley    (branch) 

Maine Orono Orono Orono 

Maryland College   Park College    Park College   Park 

Massachusetts .    Amherst Amherst Amherst 

Michigan East    Lansing East    Lansing East    Lansing 

Minnesota St.    Paul St.    Paul gt.    Paul 

Mississippi Agric.  College Agric.     College Agric.    College 

Missouri Columbia Columbia 'Columbia 

Montana Bozeman Bozeman Bozeman 

Nebraska Lincoln ,  Lincoln Lincoln 

Nevada Reno Reno Reno 

New   Hampshire —     Durham Durham Durham 

New   Jersey New    Brunswick—  New  Brunswick j^p^    Brunswick 

New    Mexico State    College State  College .  state    College 

New    York Ithaca Ithaca Ithaca 

Geneva 

North    Carolina West    Raleigh West  Raleigh West   Raleigh 

North   Dakota Agric.     College Agric.    College Agric.    College 

Ohio Columbus Columbus Wooster 

Oklahoma Stillwater Stillwater Stillwater 

Oregon Corvallis Corvallis Corvallis 

Pennsylvania State    College State    College state    College 

Porto    Rico Mayaguez Mayaguez Mayaguez 

Rio   Piedras    (Sub.) 

South   Carolina Clcmson  College—.  Clemson    College—  Clemson    College 

South    Dakota Brookings Brookings Brookings 

Tennessee Knoxville Knoxville Knoxville 

Texas College  Station College    Station....  College  Station 

Utah Logan Logan Logan 

Vermont Burlington Burlington Burlington 

Virginia Blacksburg Blacksburg Blacksburg 

Hampton Hampton    (negro).  Norfolk    (branch) 

Washington... Pullman Pullman Pullman 

West   Virginia Morgantown Morgantown Morgantown 

Wisconsin Madison Madison Madison 

Wyoming Laramie Laramie Laramie 


THE  END 


TO  THE  TEACHER 


TO  THE  TEACHER 


1.     The  Point  of  View 

SUCCESSFUL  teaching  of  agriculture,  more  than  that  of 
any  other  subject,  depends  on  the  spirit  and  methods  of 
the  teacher.  AgricuUure  is  so  thoroughly  concrete  a  subject 
that  only  a  small  part  of  it  can  be  effectively  taught  by  text- 
book and  in  class  room  without  the  assistance  of  field  and 
farm.  The  teacher  of  agriculture  must  remember  first  of 
all  that  there  is  no  real  agriculture  in  the  text-book. 

The  place  of  the  text. — Real  agriculture  is  out  in  the 
fields,  gardens  and  pastures,  and  among  the  herds  and 
flocks  of  the  farm.  The  text-book  can  only  serve  as  a 
guide  to  point  the  way,  showing  the  pupil  what  to  look  for, 
and  teaching  him  to  understand  what  he  finds  as  he  meets 
the  problems  of  preparing  the  soil,  planting  and  tilling  the 
crop,  or  feeding  and  caring  for  the  stock.  Agriculture  can 
therefore  not  be  taught  from  the  text  alone,  no  matter  how 
complete  or  well  arranged  it  may  be,  nor  how  generous  the 
illustrations.  The  text-book  is  very  important  in  class 
room  and  laboratory,  but  it  must  be  supplemented  by  ex- 
tension methods  and  agencies  to  the  immediate  interests  of 
the  farm. 

2.     Public  School  Extension  Work 

This  point  of  view  suggests  a  method  for  connecting  the 
work  of  the  school  with  the  home.  The  children  should 
actually  do  the  things  they  study  about.  For  a  number  of 
years   the  colleges   of   agriculture   have  been   engaging   in 

(i) 


ii  TO    THE   TEACHER 

various  forms  of  extension  work,  with  a  view  to  offering 
the  services  of  the  educational  institution  to  those  who  can 
'not  go  to  college.  The  time  has  come  when  the  public 
school  should  also  offer  some  such  form  of  extension  serv- 
ice and  by  so  doing  reach  all  the  homes  of  its  patrons. 

Plans  for  extension  projects. — Agricultural  extension 
work  can  be  carried  out  by  the  public  schools  according  to 
two  different  plans:  (1)  the  setting  of  certain  definite 
home  or  farm  ''projects,"  or  specific  pieces  of  work,  to  be 
carried  out  by  the  individual  pupils  as  a  part  of  the  course 
in  agriculture;  or  (2)  the  organization  of  agricultural 
clubs,  which  provide  for  group  training  for  leadership  and 
in  principles  of  cooperation  in  addition  to  the  work  of 
specified  nature  with  state  or  national  club  organizations. 
In  either  case  a  certain  amount  of  school  credit  may  be  al- 
lowed for  home  and  club  work  satisfactorily  done. 

Agricultural  club  projects. — The  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  in  cooperation  with  the  state  col- 
leges of  agriculture  has  undertaken  the  organization  of 
boys'  and  girls'  clubs  in  every  state  in  the  Union,  and, 
wherever  possible,  works  in  connection  with  the  public 
schools.  Government  experts,  state  club  directors,  county 
agricultural  agents  of  the  state  agricultural  colleges  all 
stand  ready  to  help  organize,  promote  and  direct  these 
clubs. 

The  teacher  of  agriculture  will  find  the  club  a  great 
incentive  to  pupils,  and  an  invaluable  extension  agency  to 
text-book  and  class-room  work.  Through  the  club  It  is  pos- 
sible to  translate  book  and  laboratory  information  into  real 
action  in  the  field,  with  the  herds,  and  in  the  home.  Agri- 
cultural club  work  will  also  do  much  to  bridge  the  gap  that 
has  so  long  existed  between  the  home  and  the  school. 

The  number  of  club  projects. — The  club  idea  must 
not,  however,  be  overdone.  It  Is  possible  to  start  so  many 
projects  that  none  of  them  can  be  well  supervised  or  sue- 


TO    THE    TEACHER  iii 

cessfully  carried  out.  Probably  no  school  should  encour- 
age the  formation  of  more  than  two  different  club  projects 
for  the  same  season.  Club  work  is  outlined  with  almost 
every  chapter  in  this  text,  but  not  with  the  expectation  that 
any  school  will  organize  at  one  time  all  the  clubs  suggested. 
The  teacher,  with  the  cooperation  of  county,  state  or 
other  agricultural  club  leaders,  should  select  for  boys 
the  project  of  greatest  agricultural  significance  and  value 
to  the  community,  and  for  the  girls  the  project  of  greatest 
economic  and  social  value  to  the  community  home  life. 
Every  rural  school,  especially,  should  have  two  such  club 
projects.  This  plan  will  carry  the  benefits  of  the  school  to 
the  homes,  and  offer  the  boys  and  girls  real  interests  in 
agriculture  and  home  economics  not  only  for  the  school 
year,  but  for  the  summer  vacation  as  well. 

3.     Equipment  for  Teaching  Agriculture 

The  arnount  and  nature  of  the  equipment  required  for 
the  teaching  of  agriculture  will  depend  largely  on  the  time 
allotted  to  the  study,  the  age  and  grade  of  the  pupils,  and 
the  scope  of  the  work  undertaken.  But  every  school,  no 
matter  how  small  or  elementary,  must  have  certain  neces- 
sary equipment  if  the  work  is  to  be  most  successful.  Much 
of  this  material  can  be  made  by  the  pupils  in  the  school,  if 
they  are  properly  directed. 

Tables  and  cabinets. — It  is  essential  to  have  suitable 
table  space  so  as. to  permit  study  or  demonstration  in  a 
group.  This  will  be  much  more  satisfactory  than  under- 
taking to  do  the  work  from  the  individual  desks  of  the 
pupils.  For  successful  class  work  the  pupils  should  always 
be  seated  together  for  observation  and  instruction,  and 
there  must  be  room  for  the  display  and  distribution  of  ma- 
terial to  be  used  by  the  entire  class.  Adequate  cupboard  or 
cabinet  space  for  the  storing  of  material  and  specimens  is 


iv  TO    THE    TEACHER 

important.  These  may  be  separate  pieces,  or  built  perma- 
nently in  or  against  the  wall.  They  should  be  mouse-  and 
insect-proof,  otherwise  the  specimens  are  likely  to  be  de- 
stroyed. The  upper  section  of  the  cabinet  may  be  of  glass 
and  the  lower  doors  of  wood.  The  doors  should  be  locked 
throughout  night  and  vacation  periods. 

4.     Individual  Equipment 

A  few  pieces  of  litmus  paper. 

Small  glass  vials  for  the  selection  of  weed  seeds  and 
samples  of  soil. 

Two  pieces  of  quarter-inch  hemp  rope  for  use  in  the 
study  of  the  relation  of  the  rope  to  agriculture. 

A  few  blotter  testers,  a  rag-doll  tester,  and  at  home,  a 
box  seed-corn  tester. 

Seed  racks  and  seed  trays  used  for  drying  and  exhib- 
iting purposes. 

A  small  thermometer  for  the  testing  of  temperatures  of 
water,  soil,  testers  and  incubators. 

A  few  simple  garden  tools  like  hoes,  rakes,  small  hand 
spades,  potato  fork,  etc.  Most  of  the  garden  tools  can,  of 
course,  be  supplied  from  the  home  to  be  used  both  at  home 
and  at  school. 

Some  simple  carpenter  tools  for  use  in  the  making  of 
model  hen  houses,  trap  nests,  feed  and  watering  troughs, 
single-trees,  seed  boxes,  cold-frames,  etc. 

5.     General  Equipment  for  the  School 

Seed  trays,  seed-testing  equipment",  soil  capillarity  tubes, 
a  set  of  large-mouthed  bottles  for  exhibits  of  types  of  soil, 
a  similar  set  for  exhibits  of  seeds,  a  Babcock  milk  tester, 
canning  equipment,  a  few  miniature  models  of  farm  machin- 
ery.   When  room  has  been  provided  and  funds  are  available 


TO    THE   TEACHER  v 

regular  farm  machinery,  cream  separators,  fanning  mills, 
can  sealers  and  washing  machines  will  be  of  great  value  in 
the  teaching  of  the  various  subjects  of  agriculture.  • 

6.     Laboratory  Material 

A  great  deal  of  the  material  for  instruction  can  be  ob- 
tained as  needed  from  the  homes,  and  adjoining  farms  and 
fields.  It  is  not  possible,  however,  to  make  the  course  in 
agriculture  follow  the  seasons  exactly,  and  some  material 
therefore  needs  to  be-  stored  for  class  use.  Other  material 
may  not  be  easily  found  when  requiied.  Samples  of  still 
other  products  may  not  be  available  in  the  region,  and 
should  be  kept  for  comparison. 

Samples  of  soils. — Samples  of  all  the  different  va- 
rieties of  soils  to  be  found  in  the  region  should  be  collected 
and  kept  in  laboratory  bottles,  jars  or  common  fruit  jars. 
These  samples  should  include  soils  rich  in  humus,  clays, 
sands,  lava,  and  soils  in  which  organic  matter  is  lacking. 
Each  sample  should  be  labeled,  telling  the  type  represented 
and  where  obtained. 

Specimens  of  cereal  plants  and  grains. — Samples  of 
all  the  common  cereal  grains,  including  the  different  local 
varieties,  should  be  collected  and  stored  in  wide-mouthed 
bottles.  These  will  serve  for  comparison  with  samples 
brought  by  the  pupils  from  their  farm  crops.  Specimens 
of  the  cereal  plants  should  also  be  collected  and  stored 
when  the  crop  is  ripening.  This  will  allow  the  class  to 
study  the  different  types  and  varieties  of  wheat,  oats,  etc., 
and  to  identify  each  from  the  plant,  even  if  the  study  car^ 
not  be  taken  up  when  the  crops  are  available  in  the  fields. 
It  is  also  desirable  to  make  a  collection  of  types  or  varieties 
not  common  to  the  region  and  use  them  for  comparison. 
The  state  agricultural  college  can  usually  help  in  securing 
such  a  collection. 

35 


vi  TO    THE    TEACHER 

Specimens  of  grasses  and  legumes. — A  complete  col- 
lection of  the  native  grasses  and  legumes  should  be  made 
in  every  school.  The  pupils  will  delight  in  helping  in  this 
v^ork,  which  may  be  made  one  of  the  most  valuable  parts 
of  their  instruction.  Wherever  possible  the  roots  should 
be  saved  with  the  stem,  so  that  the  entire  plant  will  be 
represented.  The  specimens  should  be  clearly  labeled  and 
tied  in  bunches  or  attached  to  pieces  of  cardboard.  It  is 
not  intended  that  these  dried  samples  shall  be  used  for  study 
instead  of  the  growing  plant,  but  they  are  often  useful  for 
occasional  illustration  during  the  winter  and  when  there  is 
no  time  to  collect  the  new  material.  They  also  serve  as  a 
standard  for  identification  of  specimens  brought  by  the 
pupils  to  the  school.  The  list  should  include  the  chief 
varieties  grown  in  other  sections  of  the  country. 

Specimens  of  weeds. — A  collection  of  the  noxious 
weeds  of  the  region  should  be  made  and  labels  attached. 
Here  again  the  class  may  be  used  in  making  the  collection 
of  all  specimens  that  are  available  at  the  time  school  is  in 
session  or  even  during  vacation.  A  collection  of  weed 
seeds  should  be  saved  in  bottles  like  those  used  for  the 
cereals.  Pupils  should  become  able  to  identify  at  sight 
both  the  weed  plant  and  its  seed,  and  should  know  the 
habits  of  growth,  the  injury  done  crops  and  the  method  of 
eradication. 

Specimens  of  injurious  insects  and  worms. — The  in- 
sect pests  common  to  the  region  should  be  collected  and 
preserved  for  study  by  attaching  them  to  cardboard  by 
means  of  laboratory  pins  or  other  device.  The  school 
should  have  a  cyanide  insect  bottle  for  killing  specimens,, 
and  insect  cases  for  preserving  them.  Each  specimen 
should  be  clearly  labeled  and  the  time  of  its  appearance  and 
disappearance  given.  These  specimens  will  then  serve  as 
a  guide  for  the  class  in  making  their  own  collection,  or 
identifying  the  insects  at  work.     The  proper  place  to  study 


TO    THE   TEACHER  vii 

insects  is,  of  course,  in  the  field  in  connection  with  the  soil 
and  plant  life  whenever  they  are  available. 

Specimens  of  woods. — A  collection  of  native  woods 
is  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  easy  to  make.  Every 
pupil  will  be  glad  to  take  part  in  the  work.  Samples  of 
the  leaves  should  also  be  collected  and  preserved.  Such  a 
collection  will  supply  the  basis  for  a  study  of  trees,  and 
should  result  in  each  pupil  being  able  to  identify  native 
trees  at  sight,  by  their  leaves,  wood  and  habits  of  growth. 
Pupils  should  not  be  permitted,  however,  to  destroy  useful 
plants  for  the  sake  of  school  specimens.  The  best  exhibit  of 
woods  and  tree  interests  is  a  well  managed,  growing  wood 
lot  on  the  school  or  home  grounds. 

7.     Method  of  Instruction 

It  is  neither  possible  nor  desirable  in  this  place  to  give 
detailed  discussion  as  to  the  methods  of  teaching  agricul- 
ture. Certain  broad  and  fundamental  principals  may,  how- 
ever, be  stated. 

Seeking  knowledge  at  first  hand. — From  the  very 
first  day,  the  pupils  should  be  made  to  feel  that  the  study  of 
agriculture  is  the  study  of  the  actual  problems  of  the  farm 
— crops,  soils,  animals,  and  all  else  that  goes  to  make  up 
the  life  of  the  farm.  To  "get  a  lesson,"  is  therefore  not 
to  commit  to  memory  what  the  text  may  say  on  a  certain 
subject,  but  to  use  the  text-book  and  all  other  available 
helps  to  master  fully  the  problem  at  hand  in  the  study  of 
an  ear  of  corn,  the  cotton  plant,  the  preparation  of  the  seed 
bed,  the  fertilizing  of  a  field,  or  the  feeding  and  management 
of  a  flock  or  herd. 

Use  of  the  text-book. — The  text-book  is  arranged  to 
give  as  natural  and  interesting  an  approach  as  possible  to 
each  chapter  or  topic.  There  is  hardly  a  text-book  lesson 
for  a  single  day  which  does  not  provide  for  some  practical 


viii  TO    THE    TEACHER 

home  and  field  study  in  connection  with  the  subject  under 
consideration.  The  lesson  assignment  should  usually  first 
be  studied  from  the  text,  the  field  laboratory  or  home 
project  on  the  topic  should  then  be  carefully  assigned  and 
directed.  The  topics  for  investigation  and  the  questions 
throughout  the  text  should  always  be  worked  out  fully  and 
thoroughly.  In  many  instances  the  teacher  will  desire  to 
add  questions  or  topics  to  supplement  those  of  the  book. 
Only  in  such  practical  ways  can  agriculture  be  made  inter- 
esting and  vital. 

Use  of  note-books. — The  pupils  should  be  provided 
with  note-books  of  uniform  size.  In  these  should  be  kept 
a  record  of  all  demonstrations,  experiments,  field  trips, 
excursions  and  observations.  Here  should  also  be  worked 
out  all  the  exercises  and  problems  required  in  the  text,  and 
those  assigned  by  the  teacher.  Drawings,  diagrams,  tables 
or  any  other  matter  brought  into  the  course  should  find 
their  way  into  the  note-book.  Pictures  of  farm  animals, 
crops,  machines,  farm  buildings  and  the  like,  should  be  as- 
sembled and  form  a  part  of  the  record  of  the  course. 
Every  note-book  should  be  neat  and  well  kept,  and  ar- 
ranged in  a  businesslike  manner. 

Correlation  with  other  subjects. — Agriculture  may 
well  be  made  in  many  schools  to  serve  as  the  basis  of  corre- 
lation with  other  subjects.  Much  of  the  arithmetic  can 
be  taught  more  efficiently  and  naturally  from  the  lessons 
in  agriculture  than  in  any  other  way.  Language  work, 
including  composition  and  letter-writing,  can  be  related  to 
much  of  the  work  of  the  agriculture  course.  Industrial 
geography  is  suggested  by  every  chapter  in  the  text.  Free- 
hand and  mechanical  drawing,  manual  training  and  domes- 
tic science  all  correlate  easily  and  naturally  with  the  lessons 
and  problems  of  the  course. 

Connection  with  home  work. — Constant  reference  is 
made  in  the  text  to  the  crops,  gardens,  stock,  soil  and  other 


TO    THE   TEACHER  ix 

interests  found  on  the  farm  or  in  the  home.  This  is  not  by 
accident.  The  purpose  is  to  make  the  study  of  agriculture 
interesting  and  helpful  by  connecting '  it  immediately  with 
the  homes.  The  teacher  who  will  faithfully  carry  out  this 
concrete  method  of  instruction  will  find  growing  in  the  pu- 
pils a  firm  and  abiding  enthusiasm  in  the  subject  never  to 
be  expected  in  mere  text-book  study.  The  great  purpose 
and  the  highest  success  is  to  get  the  lessons  of  the  text 
translated  into  life  and  common  practise.  The  work  on 
agricultural  projects  assigned  in  connection  with  the  course 
should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  done  under  the  guidance  of  the 
teacher  and  may  receive  school  credit. 

Demonstrations  and  experiments. — The  difference 
between  demonstrations  and  experiments  should  be  clearly 
understood  by  the  class.  The  idea  in  an  experiment  is  to 
investigate,  discover  or  verify  some  truth.  In  a  demon- 
stration some  well-known  truth  is  illustrated,  shown  or 
demonstrated  to  others,  with  the  purpose  of  convincing 
them  of  its  merits  and  leading  them  to  adopt  it  in  practise. 

8.     Seasonal  Order  of  Study 

Seasonal  order  impossible  in  text. — It  is  wholly  im- 
possible to  arrange  any  text  on  agriculture  so  that  the  top- 
ics will  follow  the  seasons  throughout  the  year.  If  this 
could  be  done  it  would  make  the  teacher's  work  much  sim- 
pler and  easier.  But  seasonal  variations  do  not  come  at 
the  same  time  in  different  regions,  nor  does  the  order  of 
the  crops  and  gardens  follow  the  arrangement  of  the  pres- 
ent school  year.  The  summer  vacation,  however,  must  be 
used  for  definite  extension  work  in  agriculture  by  means  of 
club  work  or  home  projects. 

Order  to  be  based  on  crop  sequence. — Because  of 
these  facts,  it  must  be  left  to  the  teacher  to  select  such  an 
order  from  the  text  as  best  fits  the  crops  and  seasons  of 


X  TO    THE    TEACHER 

his  region.  It  is  not  necessary  tha':  the  chapters  be  taken  in 
succession  as  they  occur.  For  northern  schools  opening  in  the 
late  summer,  the  corn  chapter  undoubtedly  will  be  best  for 
a  beginning.  The  potato  chapter  should  be  taken  up  before 
the  crop  is  harvested  if  possible.  It  may  be  referred  to 
again  at  planting  time  in  the  spring.  The. garden  chapters 
should  be  studied  during  the  late  winter  or  early  spring, 
and  again  referred  to  as  the  planting,  spraying  or  tillage  is 
under  consideration.  The  teacher  need  not  be  afraid  even 
to  divide  a  chapter,  using  a  part  at  two  or  more  different 
seasons  if  this  seems  best.  For  example,  the  field  study  of 
corn  should  be  started  in  the  fall  with  the  ripening  crop, 
but  the  testing  and  grading  of  seed  corn  should  be  reserved 
for  winter  and  early  spring  study. 

The  greater  part  of  the  study  of  farm  animals  can  be 
successfully  carried  on  during  the  winter,  though  certain  of 
the  features  should  be  taken  up  in  the  fall  or  spring.  Some 
of  the  work  on  soils  can  also  be  utilized  for  winter  study. 
Actual  field  study  and  demonstrations  will,  of  course,  be 
carried  on  when  the  ground  is  not  frozen.  The  great  point 
is  to  base  the  lessons  on  the  immediate  activities  of  the 
farm  during  just  as  much  of  the  year  as  possible,  making 
the  assignments  from  the  text  conform  to  the  seasonal  or- 
der of  the  locality. 

9.     Reference  Material 

Every  school  where  agriculture  is  taught  should  be 
stocked  with  a  number  of  standard  texts  on  each  of  the 
divisions  of  the  subject.  The  library  should  contain  a 
standard  cyclopedia  of  agriculture.  It  is  also  desirable  to 
have  the  Agricultural  Year  Book  of  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  a  complete  classified  file  of  farm- 
ers' and  station  bulletins,  and  the  Census  Reports  that  deal 
with  the  subject  of  agriculture.  Arrangements  can  also  be 
made  for  the  receipt  of  the  current  crop  reports. 


TO    THE    TEACHER  xi 

Government  publications. — The  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  is  in  position 
to  give  help  to  all  citizens  on  the  subject  of  agriculture. 
A  large  number  of  Farmers'  Bulletins,  circulars,  reports 
and  special  series  of  instructions  on  almost  every  conceiv- 
able agricultural  or  home  economics  subject,  can  be  secured 
by  addressing  the  States'  Relations  Service,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.  Most  of  the 
publications  are  free  and  are  intended  for  the  use  of  the 
public.  This  material  makes  a  very  necessary  and  helpful 
supplement  to  the  text-book,  and  should  be  constantly  re- 
ferred to.  It  is  well  to  provide  some  library  or  filing  ar- 
rangement to  contain  such  material,  so  that  it  can  be  prop- 
erly classified  and  available  for  ready  reference. 

State  agricultural  colleges  and  experiment  stations. — 
Every  state  has  its  agricultural  institution  and  experiment 
station.  These  institutions  publish  a  great  deal  of  valuable 
material  on  the  agricultural  problems  of  their  respective 
states.  In  most  cases  the  material  is  free  to  all  citizens  of 
the  state,  and  should  be  freely  draw^n  upon  for  school  use. 
A  list  of  the  agricultural  colleges  and  experiment  stations 
will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  "Miscellaneous  Informa- 
tion." 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Agriculture:  animals  adapted  to  southern,  35;  crops  suitable 
for  southern,  33;  crops  and  animals  for  western,  41;  dem- 
onstrations, in  southern,  40;  poultry,  for  southern,  2)7;  in 
the  South,  27;  soil  management  in  southern,  37;  soil  man- 
agement in  western,  42;  ten  commandents  of.  460;  in  the 
West,  41. 

Alfalfa:  chapter  on,  177;  enemies  of,  187;  growing  of,  178; 
harvesting,  185;  raising  the  crop,  182;  as  a  soil  renewer, 
180;  as  stock  forage,  179,  180. 

Animals:  farm  and  agriculture,  344;  food  supplying,  346;  sec- 
tion on,  344;  for  southern  farms,  35. 

Aphis,  corn  root,  19. 

Arid  regions:     causes  of,  56;  in  United  States,  45. 

Arsenate  of  lead  spray,  252. 

Babcock,  the  milk  test,  356. 

Bacteria,   nitrifying,   159. 

Beef:  breeds  of  cattle,  367;  club  projects,  374;  feeding  of  cat- 
tle, 368. 

Birds:  chapter  on,  510;  and  their  food,  510;  harmful,  514:  use- 
ful,  farm,   512. 

Blotter   seed   tester,    picture   of,    10. 

Boll  weevil:     in  cotton,  116;  life  history  of,  114. 

Bordeaux   mixture,   249. 

Bread,  wheat,  74. 

Canning  fruits  and  vegetables:  chapter  on,  258;  classification  of 
fruits  for,  272;  containers  for,  267;  equipments  for,  263; 
importance  for  table,  258;  making  brines  and  sirups  for, 
268;  methods  and  devices,  259;  the  mechanics  of,  296;  spe- 
x:ial  recipes  for,  279;  tables,  270;  windfall  and  cull  apples, 
293. 

Cattle:  beef  breeds  of,  367;  chapter  on,  351;  club  projects,  374; 
dairy,  351;  demonstrations,  373;  diseases  of,  369;  feeding 
of  beef,  368;  foot  and  mouth  disease,  372;  play  contests, 
373;  tick  fever  in,  370. 

Chinch  bugs:    in  oats,  100;  in  wheat,  86. 

Cholera,  hog,  412. 

(xv) 


xvi  INDEX 

Clovers,  the:  chapter  on,  163;  enemies  of,  172;  harvesting.  171; 
raising  of  red,  166;  red,  163,  165;  red,  seed,  179;  various 
types  of,  174. 

Club  projects:  cattle,  374;  corn,  24;  cotton,  118;  dry-farm,  55; 
forage,  161;  fruit  and  nut,  240;  horse,  394;  irrigation,  72; 
mutton,  426;  pork,  416;  potato,  133;  poultry,  454;  roads, 
508;  soil  fertility,  342;  in  the  South,  40;  sugar,  156;  tomato, 
248;  vegetable,  223;  wheat  and  oat,  106. 

Cold-pack  canning,  261. 

Corn:  belt,  the,  1;  chapter  on,  1;  club  boys,  2;  club  work.  24; 
cultivation  of,  16;  demonstrations,  24;  ear-worm,  21; 
enemies,  18;  good  seed,  6;  play  contest,  23;  root-worm, 
18,  20;  seed  bed,  14;  selecting  seed,  7;  culture  in  the  South, 
1;  structure  of,  4;  testing  seed,  9. 

Cotton:  boll  rot,  117;  chapter  on,  107;  club  projects,  118;  cul- 
tivation of,  109;  demonstrations,  118;  enemies  of,  114,  116; 
fertilizers  for,  111;  picking  of,  112;  play  contests,  118; 
region,  107;  types  of,  109. 

County  agent:  chapter  on,  479;  financial  support  of,  482;  and 
the  school,  483;  work  of,  479. 

Cover  crops,  need  of,  38. 

Cows:  dairy  breeds,  358;  dairy  type  of,  354;  dairy  ration,  361; 
feeding  dairy,  359;  judging,  356;  profit  from,  353;  select- 
ing by  milk  test,  356. 

Cow-peas:     as  a  forage  crop,  192;  as  a  soil  renewer,  192. 

Crops,  forage,  chapter  on,  157. 

Dairy:  breeds  of  cows,  358;  club  projects,  375;  feedins:  cows, 
359;  type  of  cows,  354. 

Demonstrations:  cattle,  373;  corn,  24;  cotton,  118;  in  dry-farm- 
ing, 54;  forage,  161;  fruit  and  nut,  239;  hog.  416:  horse, 
393;  irrigation,  71;  oat,  104;  potato,  131;  poultry,  452; 
roads,  506;  sheep,  425;  soil,  341;  in  southern  agriculture, 
40;  sugar,  155;  tobacco,  144;  tomato,  246;  vegetable,  221; 
wheat,  104. 

Diversified  farming:     advantages  of,  29,  32;  in  South,  27. 

Drainage:     cost  of,  340;  of  soils,  336;  surface,  338;  under.  339, 

Dry-farming:  club  projects,  55;  crops  adapted  to.  51:  demon- 
strations in,  54;  section  on,  44;  areas  in  United  States. 
45;  in  West,  42,  49. 

Eggs:     producing,  441;   for  setting,  435;  testing,  438,  443, 
Erosion  of  soil,  309. 

Fallowing,  in  West,  47. 

Farm:  administration  of,  457;  animals,  344;  buildings,  465; 
chapter  on  economics  of,  455;  the  home,  462;  and  home 
management,  455;  implements,  487;  management  under 
irrigation,  66;  management  in  South,  33,  37;  management 
u:  West,  42,  46,  49;  mechanics,  489. 


INDEX  xvii 


Peeding  floor,  403. 

Pertility:    conserving  in  dry-farming,  51;  and  crop  rotation^  327. 

Fertilization   of  plants,   cross,    5. 

Fertilizers:  alfalfa  as  a,  180;  barnyard  manure  as,  316;  com- 
mercial, 323;  for  cotton,  111;  green  crops  as,  322;  legumes 
as,  159;  in  southern  farming,  37. 

Foot-and  mouth  disease:     in  cattle,  372;  prevention  of,  373. 

Forage  crops:  alfalfa  as  a,  179;  club  projects,  161;  demonstra- 
tions, 161;  importance  of,  158;  regions,  158. 

Fruit:  chapter  on,  224;  citrus  orchards,  225;  citrus  regions, 
226;  citrus,  232;  classification  for  canning,  272;  cultivation 
of  the  citrus,  230;  demonstrations,  239;  garden,  the,  224; 
grapefruit,  229;  lemons,  229;  limes,  230;  marketing  citrus, 
232;  olive,  the,  235;  oranges,  226;  peaches  and  pears,  236; 
pineapple,  the,  235;  picking  and  packing  citrus,  232. 

Fungicides,  249. 

Grapefruit,  the,  229. 
Grasses,  meadow,   1S9. 
Grasshoppers,  86. 

Harvesting:  alfalfa,  185;  clover,-  171;  oats,  98;  tobacco,  140; 
wheat,  81. 

Hessian  fly,  the,  86. 

Hogs:  breeds  of,  397;  care  of,  400;  chapter  on,  396;  demon- 
strations, 416;  diseases  of,  410;  feeding,  405;  regions,  396. 

Home:  beautifying  the  grounds,  468;  the  farm,  462;  grounds 
and  wood  lot,  468;  labor-saving  devices  in,  464. 

Horses:  breeds  of,  381;  care  of,  387;  chapter  on.  376:  classes 
of,  377;  club  projects,  394;  demonstrations  with,  393;  de- 
fects in,  385;  feeding,  389;  important  regions  of,  376; 
judging,  385;  play  contests  with,  394. 

Horticulture,  section  on,  207. 

Hotbed:     structure  of,  215;  use   of,  216, 

Humus:     and  capillary  water,  333;  in  soil,  304. 

Inoculation,  for  alfalfa,  183. 

Insecticides,  249. 

Irrigation:  chapter  on,  56;  club  projects,  72;  crop  management 
under,  66;  dangers  of  over,  68;  demonstration,  71;  over- 
head, 64;  play  contests,  72;  sub-surface.  62;  surface.  60; 
systems  of,  60;  in  West,  42. 

Kerosene  emulsion,  255. 

Legumes:     chapter  on,  190;  forage,  157;  and  soil  nitrogen,  159. 

Lemon,  229. 

Lime:     forms  of,  326;  use  of  on  soils,  325. 

JLime-sulphur- spray,  250. 


xviii  INDEX 


Manure:     as  a  fertilizer,  316;   green  rrianuring,  321;   preventing 

loss  from,  319. 
Meadows:     care  of,  200;  chapter  on,  198;  grasses  for,  189;  weeds 

in,  202. 
Milk:     producing  clean,  364;  test  of  dairy  cows,  356. 

Nitrogen:     commercial,  as  fertilizer,  423;  from  legumes,  159. 
Nuts:     almond,  the,  237;  demonstrations,  239;  farming  in  South 

and   West,   237;   and   fruits,   chapter  on,  224;   pecan,   the, 

238;  walnut,  the  English,  238. 

Oats:  chapter  on,  90;  demonstrations,  104;  enemies  and  dis- 
eases, 100;  harvesting,  98;  importance  of  crop,  90;  methods 
of  seeding,  96;  play  contests,  104;  raising  the  crop,  95; 
region,  91;  treating  the  seed,  97;  types  of,  93;  yield,  91. 

Olive,  235. 

Orange:     region  of,  227;  the,  226;  varieties,  228. 

Paris  green  spray,  253. 

Pastures:     care  -of,  204;   chapter  on,   198;  grasses  for,  203. 

Peaches  and  pears,  236. 

Peanut:     section  on,  195;  uses  of,  195. 

Phosphorus  fertilizers,  324. 

Pineapple,  235, 

Play  contests:  with  cattle,  373;  corn,  21;  cotton,  118;  dry- 
farming,  55;  fruit  and  nut,  240;  with  hogs,  416;  with 
horses,  394;  irrigation,  72;  oat  and  wheat,  104;  potato, 
133;  poultry,  453;  roads,  508;  with  sheep,  426;  soil,  342; 
sugar,  155;  tomato,  248;  vegetable,  223. 

Potassium  fertilizers,  324. 

Potatoes:  chapter  on,  120;  club  projects,  133;  demonstrations, 
131;  enemies  of,  129;  the  plant,  120;  play  contests,  133; 
producing  the  crop,  121;  region  of,  122;  selection  of  seed, 
125;  storing,   124. 

Poultry:  breeds  of,  431;  chapter  on,  428;  club  projects.  454; 
demonstrations,  452;  diseases  of,  447;  feeding.  439;  hatch- 
ing systems,  436;  housing,  444;  play  contests.  453;  produc- 
ing, 435;  profits  from,  430;  region,  429;  in  the  South,  37. 

Rag-doll  seed  tester,  picture  of  testing,  13. 

Rainfall:  average  amount  of,  44;  and  farm  management,  44; 
seasonable  distribution  of,  57. 

Ration:  for  chickens,  440;  for  milk  cows,  361;  for  hogs,  408; 
for  work  horses,  390;  for  sheep,  423. 

Reclamation  of  arid  land,  history  of,  59. 

Resin-lime  spray,  255. 

Roads:  chapter  on,  498;  club  projects,  508;  ,  construction  of, 
earth,  503;  demonstrations,  506;  location  of.  500;  main- 
tenance of,  504;  play  contests,  508;  types  of.  500. 

Rope  tying:  club  projects,  496;  play  contests,  ^95:  section  on, 
491. 


INDEX  xix 

Rotation  of  crops:     under  irrigation,  67;  principles  of,  329;  and 

soil  fertility,  327;  tables  for,  328. 
Rust:     in  oats,  101;  in  wheat,  33. 

Scab:    potato,  129;  wheat,  83. 

Seed:  red  clover,  179;  selection  of  corn,  7;  selecting  potato, 
125;  selection  of  tobacco,  139;  wheat,  79. 

Sheep:  breeds  of,  420;  chapter  on,  418;  club  projects,  427; 
demonstrations,  425;  as  farm  foragers,  418;  feeding  of, 
422;  play  contests,  426. 

Smut:     in  oats,  101;  in  wheat,  85. 

Soil:  capillarity,  332;  demonstration,  341;  drainage,  336;  erosion 
of,  309;  fertility,  314;  moisture,  331;  organic  matter  in» 
304;  origin  of,  302;  play  contests,  342;  section  on.  302; 
structure  of,  307;  texture  of,  306;  water  and  tillage,  334. 

Soups,  recipes  for  canning,  287. 

Soy-beans:     feeding  value  of,  195;  section  on,  193. 

Spraying:  with  arsenate  of  lead,  252;  with  Bordeaux  mixture, 
249;  chapter  on,  249;  with  kerosene  emulsion,  255;  with 
lime-sulphur,  250;  with  Paris  green,  253:  with  resin- 
lime,  255. 

Sugar:  beets,  148;  cane,  146;  classification  of,  145;  club  projects 
156;  chapter  on,  145;  demonstrations,  155;  maple,  153 
play  contests,  155;  producing  cane,  146;'  region,  145 
sorghum,  151;  types  of,  146. 

Tick  fever:     cure  for,  372;  loss  from,  370. 

Tobacco:     classes  of,  136;  chapter  on,  135;  demonstrations,  144; 

enemies   of,   141;   harvesting,    140;   raising   the   crop,    137; 

region,  135;  seed  selection,  138. 
Tomato:     chapter  on,  242;   club   projects,  248;   demonstrations, 

246;  as  a  food,  242;  harvesting  and  marketing.  245;  play 

contests,  248;  raising  the  crop,  243;  varieties,  243. 
Tuberculosis:     in  cattle,  369;  cure  in  cattle,  370;  tuberculin,  test 

for,  369. 

Vegetables:     canning,  276;  chapter  on,  207;  club  projects,  223; 

culture   of,   212;    demonstrations,   221;    insect   enemies    of, 

219;  plan  of  garden,  208;  planting  time  and  ma^-^rity,  211; 

play  contests,  223;  special  recipes  for  canning   283;  trani- 

planting  of,  215,  217. 
Vetch:     classes  of,  193;  section  on  the.  193. 

Water:     for  the  home,  52;  supply  for  irrigation,  60. 

Wheat:  bread,  74;  chapter  on,  73;  demonstrations,  104;  dis- 
eases and  insect  enemies,  81;  growing  crop  of,  79;  harvest- 
ing, 81;  importance  of,  73;  play  contests,  104;  seed,  79; 
types,  75;  yield  of,  75. 

Wood  lot:  demonstrations,  477;  enemies  of.  475;  the  farm,  471; 
play  contests,  478;  trees  for,  473. 


